Editing Neuroscience (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of neuroscience}}
[[File:Gray739.png|right|thumb|250px|Illustration from ''[[Gray's Anatomy]]'' (1918) of a lateral view of the [[human brain]], featuring the [[hippocampus]] among other neuroanatomical features]]
The earliest study of the nervous system dates to [[ancient Egypt]]. [[Trepanation]], the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the [[skull]] for the purpose of curing head injuries or [[Mental illness|mental disorders]], or relieving cranial pressure, was first recorded during the [[Neolithic]] period. Manuscripts dating to [[1700&nbsp;BC]] indicate that the [[Egyptians]] had some knowledge about symptoms of [[brain damage]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Mohamed W|date=2008|title=The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus: Neuroscience in Ancient Egypt|work=IBRO History of Neuroscience|url=http://www.ibro1.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3199|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140706060915/http://www.ibro1.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3199|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-07-06|access-date=2014-07-06}}</ref>

Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In [[Egypt]], from the late [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] onwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for [[Mummy|mummification]]. It was believed at the time that the [[heart]] was the seat of intelligence. According to [[Herodotus]], the first step of mummification was to "take a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the [[skull]] is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs."<ref>{{cite book|author=Herodotus|translator=George Rawlinson|date=2009|orig-year=440 BCE|title=The Histories: Book II (Euterpe)|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.mb.txt}}</ref>

The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the [[Ancient Greek medicine|Greek]] physician [[Hippocrates]]. He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation—since most specialized organs (e.g.,&nbsp;eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain—but was also the seat of intelligence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Breitenfeld|first1=T.|last2=Jurasic|first2=M. J.|last3=Breitenfeld|first3=D.|s2cid=2002986|date=September 2014|title=Hippocrates: the forefather of neurology|journal=Neurological Sciences|volume=35|issue=9|pages=1349–1352|doi=10.1007/s10072-014-1869-3|issn=1590-3478|pmid=25027011}}</ref> [[Plato]] also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul.<ref>{{cite book|author=Plato|translator=George Rawlinson|date=2009|orig-year=360 BCE|title=Timaeus|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/timaeus.1b.txt}}</ref> [[Aristotle]], however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain regulated the amount of heat from the heart.<ref name=Stanley2001>{{cite book |last1 = Finger |first1 = Stanley |title = Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations into Brain Function |edition=3rd |publisher = Oxford University Press, USA |location = New York |date = 2001 |isbn = 978-0-19-514694-3 |pages=3–17}}</ref> This view was generally accepted until the [[Medicine in ancient Rome|Roman]] physician [[Galen]], a follower of Hippocrates and physician to [[Gladiator|Roman gladiators]], observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Freemon|first=F. R.|date=23 Sep 2009|title=Galen's ideas on neurological function|journal=Journal of the History of the Neurosciences|volume=3|issue=4|pages=263–271|doi=10.1080/09647049409525619|issn=0964-704X|pmid=11618827}}</ref>

[[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi|Abulcasis]], [[Averroes]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ibn Zuhr|Avenzoar]], and [[Maimonides]], active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. In [[Renaissance|Renaissance Europe]], [[Vesalius]] (1514–1564), [[René Descartes]] (1596–1650), [[Thomas Willis]] (1621–1675) and [[Jan Swammerdam]] (1637–1680) also made several contributions to neuroscience.

[[Image:GolgiStainedPyramidalCell.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Golgi's method|Golgi stain]] first allowed for the visualization of individual neurons.]]
[[Luigi Galvani]]'s pioneering work in the late 1700s set the stage for studying the [[Cell excitability|electrical excitability]] of muscles and neurons. In 1843 [[Emil du Bois-Reymond]] demonstrated the electrical nature of the nerve signal,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Emil du Bois-Reymond: Neuroscience, Self, and Society in Nineteenth-Century Germany|last=Finkelstein|first=Gabriel|publisher=The MIT Press|year=2013|isbn=9780262019507|location=Cambridge; London|pages=72–74, 89–95}}</ref> whose speed [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] proceeded to measure,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Harrison|first1=David W.|title=Brain Asymmetry and Neural Systems Foundations in Clinical Neuroscience and Neuropsychology|date=2015|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-319-13068-2|pages=15–16}}</ref> and in 1875 [[Richard Caton]] found electrical phenomena in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/ECHOdocuView?url=/permanent/vlp/lit27690/index.meta&ww=0.7143&wh=0.7143&wx=0.2632|title=Caton, Richard - The electric currents of the brain|website=echo.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de|access-date=2018-12-21}}</ref> [[Adolf Beck (physiologist)|Adolf Beck]] published in 1890 similar observations of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs.<ref name="Adolf Beck pioneer">{{cite journal |last1=Coenen, Anton |last2=Edward Fine |last3=Oksana Zayachkivska |title=Adolf Beck: A Forgotten Pioneer In Electroencephalography |journal=Journal of the History of the Neurosciences |volume=23 |issue=3 |date=2014 |pages=276–286 |doi=10.1080/0964704x.2013.867600|pmid=24735457|s2cid=205664545 }}</ref> Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the [[microscope]] and the development of a [[staining|staining procedure]] by [[Camillo Golgi]] during the late 1890s. The procedure used a [[silver chromate]] salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual [[neuron]]s. His technique was used by [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]] and led to the formation of the [[neuron doctrine]], the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Guillery|first1=R|title=Observations of synaptic structures: origins of the neuron doctrine and its current status|pmc=1569502|pmid=16147523|doi=10.1098/rstb.2003.1459|volume=360|issue=1458|date=Jun 2005|journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci|pages=1281–307}}</ref> Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain.

In parallel with this research, in 1815 [[Jean Pierre Flourens]] induced localized lesions of the brain in living animals to observe their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. Work with brain-damaged patients by [[Marc Dax]] in 1836 and [[Paul Broca]] in 1865 suggested that certain regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. At the time, these findings were seen as a confirmation of [[Franz Joseph Gall]]'s theory that language was localized and that certain [[mental process|psychological functions]] were localized in specific areas of the [[cerebral cortex]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Greenblatt SH|date=1995|title=Phrenology in the science and culture of the 19th century|journal=Neurosurgery|volume=37|issue=4|pages=790–805|pmid=8559310|doi=10.1227/00006123-199510000-00025}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bear MF|author2=Connors BW|author3=Paradiso MA|date=2001|title=Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain|edition=2nd|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-7817-3944-3}}</ref> The [[Functional specialization (brain)|localization of function]] hypothesis was supported by observations of [[epilepsy|epileptic]] patients conducted by [[John Hughlings Jackson]], who correctly inferred the organization of the [[motor cortex]] by watching the progression of seizures through the body. [[Carl Wernicke]] further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern research through [[history of neuroimaging|neuroimaging]] techniques, still uses the [[Brodmann areas|Brodmann]] [[Cytoarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex|cerebral cytoarchitectonic map]] (referring to the study of [[Organelle|cell structure]]) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kandel ER|author2=Schwartz JH|author3=Jessel TM|date=2000|title=Principles of Neural Science|edition=4th|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1|title-link=Principles of Neural Science}}</ref>

During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right, rather than as studies of the nervous system within other disciplines. [[Eric Kandel]] and collaborators have cited [[David Rioch]], [[Francis O. Schmitt]], and [[Stephen Kuffler]] as having played critical roles in establishing the field.<ref name=Rioch>{{Cite journal|last1=Cowan|first1=W.M.|last2=Harter|first2=D.H.|last3=Kandel|first3=E.R.|date=2000|title=The emergence of modern neuroscience: Some implications for neurology and psychiatry|journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience|volume=23|pages=345–346|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.343|pmid=10845068}}</ref> Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the [[Walter Reed Army Institute of Research]], starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology) was founded in 1964 at the University of California, Irvine by [[James McGaugh|James L. McGaugh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Squire |first=Larry R. |title=The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography |date=1996 |publisher=Society for Neuroscience |isbn=0916110516 |volume=4 |location=Washington DC |page=410 |chapter=James L. McGaugh |oclc=36433905 |chapter-url=https://www.sfn.org/~/media/SfN/Documents/TheHistoryofNeuroscience/Volume%204/c11.ashx}}</ref> This was followed by the [[Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School|Department of Neurobiology]] at [[Harvard Medical School]], which was founded in 1966 by Stephen Kuffler.<ref>{{cite web|title=History - Department of Neurobiology|url=http://neuro.hms.harvard.edu/about-us/history|access-date=2017-10-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927180721/https://neuro.hms.harvard.edu/about-us/history|archive-date=2019-09-27|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Sensory and motor homunculi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|3-D sensory and motor homunculus models at the [[Natural History Museum, London]]]]
In the process of treating [[epilepsy]], [[Wilder Penfield]] produced maps of the location of various functions (motor, sensory, memory, vision) in the brain.<ref>[https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/1/26/16932476/wilder-penfield-brain-surgery-epilepsy-google-doodle Wilder Penfield redrew the map of the brain — by opening the heads of living patients]</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmc=3221191 | year=2011 | last1=Kumar | first1=R. | last2=Yeragani | first2=V. K. | title=Penfield – A great explorer of psyche-soma-neuroscience | journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry | volume=53 | issue=3 | pages=276–278 | doi=10.4103/0019-5545.86826 | pmid=22135453 | doi-access=free }}</ref> He summarized his findings in a 1950 book called ''The Cerebral Cortex of Man''.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/jnnp/56/4/329.full.pdf |doi=10.1136/jnnp.56.4.329 |title=Penfield's homunculus: A note on cerebral cartography |year=1993 |last1=Schott |first1=G. D. |journal=Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=329–333 |pmid=8482950 |pmc=1014945 }}</ref> Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of the [[cortical homunculus]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cazala |first1=Fadwa |last2=Vienney |first2=Nicolas |last3=Stoléru |first3=Serge |title=The cortical sensory representation of genitalia in women and men: a systematic review |journal=Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology |volume=5 |doi=10.3402/snp.v5.26428 |pmc=4357265 |pmid=25766001 |date=2015-03-10 |page=26428 }}</ref>

The understanding of neurons and of nervous system function became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952, [[Alan Lloyd Hodgkin]] and [[Andrew Huxley]] presented a [[mathematical model]] for the transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called "[[action potentials]]", and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the [[Hodgkin–Huxley model]]. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the [[FitzHugh–Nagumo model]]. In 1962, [[Bernard Katz]] modeled [[neurotransmission]] across the space between neurons known as [[synapses]]. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in ''[[Aplysia]]''. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the [[Morris–Lecar model]]. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous [[biological neuron model]]s and [[models of neural computation]].

As a result of the increasing interest about the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists during the 20th century. For example, the [[International Brain Research Organization]] was founded in 1961,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ibro.org/history/ |title=History of IBRO|date=2010|work=International Brain Research Organization}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> the [[International Society for Neurochemistry]] in 1963,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Portal |first=ISN |title=The Beginning |url=http://www.neurochemistry.org/Information/History/TheBeginning.aspx |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20120421033642/http://www.neurochemistry.org:80/Information/History/TheBeginning.aspx |archive-date=2012-04-21 |access-date=2025-04-11 |website=www.neurochemistry.org |language=en-GB}}</ref> the [[European Brain and Behaviour Society]] in 1968,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebbs-science.org/cms/general/about-ebbs.html|title=About EBBS|date=2009|work=European Brain and Behaviour Society|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235558/http://www.ebbs-science.org/cms/general/about-ebbs.html|archive-date=2016-03-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the [[Society for Neuroscience]] in 1969.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfn.org/index.aspx?pagename=about_sfn|title=About SfN|work=Society for Neuroscience}}</ref> Recently, the application of neuroscience research results has also given rise to [[Applied science|applied disciplines]] as [[neuroeconomics]],<ref>{{Cite journal|title=How can neuroscience inform economics?|url=http://www.columbia.edu/~md3405/Working_Paper_15.pdf|journal=Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences}}</ref> [[Educational neuroscience|neuroeducation]],<ref>Zull, J. (2002). ''The art of changing the brain: Enriching the practice of teaching by exploring the biology of learning''. Sterling, Virginia: Stylus Publishing, LLC</ref> [[neuroethics]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.neuroethicssociety.org/what-is-neuroethics|title=What is Neuroethics?|website=www.neuroethicssociety.org|access-date=2019-02-22}}</ref> and [[neurolaw]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Petoft|first=Arian|date=2015-01-05|title=Neurolaw: A brief introduction|journal=Iranian Journal of Neurology|volume=14|issue=1|pages=53–58|issn=2008-384X|pmc=4395810|pmid=25874060}}</ref>

Over time, brain research has gone through philosophical, experimental, and theoretical phases, with work on neural implants and brain simulation predicted to be important in the future.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=Xue|last2=Markram|first2=Henry|date=2019-05-07|title=A Brief History of Simulation Neuroscience|journal= Frontiers in Neuroinformatics|volume=13|page=32|doi=10.3389/fninf.2019.00032|pmid=31133838|pmc=6513977|issn=1662-5196|doi-access=free}}</ref>