Editing Neurotechnology (section)

==Types==

===Deep brain stimulation===
{{Main|Deep brain stimulation}}
Deep brain stimulation is currently used in patients with movement disorders to improve the quality of life in patients.<ref name="Gross2008"/>

===Transcranial ultrasound stimulation===
Transcrancial ultrasound stimulation (TUS) is a technique using ultrasound to modulate neural activity in the brain. It is an emerging technique that has shown therapeutic promise in a variety of neurological diseases. <ref>{{Cite web|title=TUS|url=https://www.biomedcentral.com/collections/transcranial-ultrasound-stimulation|website=BiomedCentral|language=en}}</ref>

===Transcranial magnetic stimulation===
{{Main|Transcranial magnetic stimulation|Pulsed electromagnetic field therapy}}

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a technique for applying magnetic fields to the brain to manipulate electrical activity at specific loci in the brain.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wassermann EM | title = Risk and safety of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: report and suggested guidelines from the International Workshop on the Safety of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, June 5-7, 1996 | journal = Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology | volume = 108 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–16 | date = January 1998 | pmid = 9474057 | doi = 10.1016/S0168-5597(97)00096-8 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1259909 }}</ref> This field of study is currently receiving a large amount of attention due to the potential benefits that could come out of better understanding this technology.<ref name="Illes2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Illes J, Gallo M, Kirschen MP | title = An ethics perspective on transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and human neuromodulation | journal = Behavioural Neurology | volume = 17 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 149–57 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17148834 | pmc = 5471539 | doi = 10.1155/2006/791072 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Transcranial magnetic movement of particles in the brain shows promise for drug targeting and delivery as studies have demonstrated this to be noninvasive on brain physiology.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ramaswamy B, Kulkarni SD, Villar PS, Smith RS, Eberly C, Araneda RC, Depireux DA, Shapiro B | display-authors = 6 | title = Movement of magnetic nanoparticles in brain tissue: mechanisms and impact on normal neuronal function | journal = Nanomedicine | volume = 11 | issue = 7 | pages = 1821–9 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26115639 | pmc = 4586396 | doi = 10.1016/j.nano.2015.06.003 }}</ref>

Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a relatively new method of studying how the brain functions and is used in many research labs focused on behavioral disorders, [[epilepsy]], [[PTSD]], [[migraine]], hallucinations, and other disorders.<ref name="Illes2006" /> Currently, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation is being researched to see if positive behavioral effects of TMS can be made more permanent. Some techniques combine TMS and another scanning method such as EEG to get additional information about brain activity such as cortical response.<ref name="Veniero2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Veniero D, Bortoletto M, Miniussi C | title = TMS-EEG co-registration: on TMS-induced artifact | journal = Clinical Neurophysiology | volume = 120 | issue = 7 | pages = 1392–9 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19535291 | doi = 10.1016/j.clinph.2009.04.023 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 4496573 | hdl = 11572/145615 }}</ref>

===Transcranial direct current stimulation===
{{Main|Transcranial direct current stimulation}}

Transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS) is a form of [[neurostimulation]] which uses constant, low current delivered via electrodes placed on the scalp. The mechanisms underlying TDCS effects are still incompletely understood, but recent advances in neurotechnology allowing for ''in vivo'' assessment of brain electric activity during TDCS<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Soekadar SR, Witkowski M, Cossio EG, Birbaumer N, Robinson SE, Cohen LG | title = In vivo assessment of human brain oscillations during application of transcranial electric currents | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 4 | pages = 2032 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23787780 | pmc = 4892116 | doi = 10.1038/ncomms3032 | bibcode = 2013NatCo...4.2032S }}</ref> promise to advance understanding of these mechanisms. Research into using TDCS on healthy adults have demonstrated that TDCS can increase cognitive performance on a variety of tasks, depending on the area of the brain being stimulated. TDCS has been used to enhance language and mathematical ability (though one form of TDCS was also found to inhibit math learning),<ref name=PMID_25970697>{{cite journal | vauthors = Grabner RH, Rütsche B, Ruff CC, Hauser TU | title = Transcranial direct current stimulation of the posterior parietal cortex modulates arithmetic learning | journal = The European Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 42 | issue = 1 | pages = 1667–74 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 25970697 | doi = 10.1111/ejn.12947 | url = https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/113360/1/Grabner_EJN_2015.pdf | quote = Cathodal tDCS (compared with sham) decreased learning rates during training and resulted in poorer performance which lasted over 24 h after stimulation. Anodal tDCS showed an operation-specific improvement for subtraction learning. | s2cid = 37724278 }}</ref> attention span, problem solving, memory,<ref name=PMID_26457823>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gray SJ, Brookshire G, Casasanto D, Gallo DA | title = Electrically stimulating prefrontal cortex at retrieval improves recollection accuracy | journal = Cortex; A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior | volume = 73 | pages = 188–94 | date = December 2015 | pmid = 26457823 | doi = 10.1016/j.cortex.2015.09.003 | quote = We found that stimulation of dlPFC significantly increased recollection accuracy, relative to a no-stimulation sham condition and also relative to active stimulation of a comparison region in left parietal cortex. | s2cid = 19886903 }}</ref> coordination and relieve depression <ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nitsche MA, Boggio PS, Fregni F, Pascual-Leone A | title = Treatment of depression with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): a review | journal = Exp Neurol | year = 2009 | volume = 219 | issue = 1 | pages = 14–19 | pmid = 19348793| doi = 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.03.038 | s2cid = 695276 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Brunoni AR, Moffa AH, Fregni F, Palm U, Padberg F, Blumberger DM, Daskalakis ZJ, Bennabi D, Haffen E, Alonzo A, Loo CK | title = Transcranial direct current stimulation for acute major depressive episodes: meta-analysis of individual patient data | journal = Br J Psychiatry | year = 2016 | volume = 208 | issue = 6 | pages = 522–531 | pmid = 27056623 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.bp.115.164715 | pmc = 4887722 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tecchio F, Bertoli M, Gianni E, L'Abbate T, Sbragia E, Stara S, Inglese M| title = Parietal dysfunctional connectivity in depression in multiple sclerosis | journal = Mult Scler | year = 2020 | volume = 27 | issue = 9 | pages = 1468–1469 | pmid = 33084529 | doi = 10.1177/1352458520964412 | s2cid = 224829189 }}</ref> and chronic fatigue.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gianni E, Bertoli M, Simonelli I, Paulon L, Tecchio F, Pasqualetti P | title = tDCS randomized controlled trials in no-structural diseases: a quantitative review | journal = Scientific Reports | year = 2021 | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | page = 16311 | pmid = 34381076| doi = 10.1038/s41598-021-95084-6 | pmc = 8357949 | bibcode = 2021NatSR..1116311G | hdl = 11573/1575485 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tecchio F, Cancelli A, Pizzichino A, L'Abbate T, Gianni E, Bertoli M, Paulon L, Zannino S, Giordani A, Lupoi D, Pasqualetti P, Mirabella M, Filippi MM| title = Home treatment against fatigue in multiple sclerosis by a personalized, bilateral whole-body somatosensory cortex stimulation | journal = Mult Scler Relat Disord | year = 2022 | volume = 63 | page = 103813 | pmid = 35597081 | doi = 10.1016/j.msard.2022.103813 | s2cid = 248967047 }}</ref>

===Electrophysiology===
[[Electroencephalography]] (EEG) is a method of measuring brainwave activity non-invasively. A number of electrodes are placed around the head and scalp and electrical signals are measured.<ref name = "Purves_2007">{{cite book | vauthors = Purves D |title=Neuroscience, Fourth Edition |publisher=Sinauer Associates, Inc. |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-87893-697-7 |page=715}}</ref> Clinically, EEGs are used to study epilepsy as well as stroke and tumor presence in the brain. [[Electrocorticography]] (ECoG) relies on similar principles but requires invasive implantation of electrodes on the brain's surface to measure local field potentials or action potentials more sensitively.

[[Magnetoencephalography]] (MEG) is another method of measuring activity in the brain by measuring the magnetic fields that arise from electrical currents in the brain.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Hämäläinen M |date=November 2007 |title=Magnetoencephalography (MEG) |publisher=Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging |url=http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/martinos/research/technologiesMEG}}</ref> The benefit to using MEG instead of EEG is that these fields are highly localized and give rise to better understanding of how specific loci react to stimulation or if these regions over-activate (as in epileptic seizures).

There are potential uses for EEG and MEG such as charting rehabilitation and improvement after trauma as well as testing neural conductivity in specific regions of epileptics or patients with personality disorders. EEG has been fundamental in understanding the resting brain during sleep.<ref name = "Purves_2007" /> Real-time EEG has been considered for use in [[lie detection]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Farwell LA, Smith SS | title = Using brain MERMER testing to detect knowledge despite efforts to conceal | journal = Journal of Forensic Sciences | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 135–43 | date = January 2001 | pmid = 11210899 | doi = 10.1520/JFS14925J | s2cid = 45516709 }}</ref>
Similarly, real-time fMRI is being researched as a method for pain therapy by altering how people perceive pain if they are made aware of how their brain is functioning while in pain. By providing direct and understandable feedback, researchers can help patients with chronic pain decrease their symptoms.<ref name="deCharms2005">{{cite journal |author1-link=Christopher deCharms
|author3-link=Gary H. Glover | vauthors = deCharms RC, Maeda F, Glover GH, Ludlow D, Pauly JM, Soneji D, Gabrieli JD, Mackey SC | display-authors = 6 | title = Control over brain activation and pain learned by using real-time functional MRI | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 102 | issue = 51 | pages = 18626–31 | date = December 2005 | pmid = 16352728 | pmc = 1311906 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0505210102 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2005PNAS..10218626D }}</ref>

===Implants===
{{Main|Brain–computer interface|Surface chemistry of neural implants|Neuroprosthetics}}
Neurotechnological implants can be used to record and utilize brain activity to control other devices which provide feedback to the user or replace missing biological functions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hochberg LR, Serruya MD, Friehs GM, Mukand JA, Saleh M, Caplan AH, Branner A, Chen D, Penn RD, Donoghue JP | display-authors = 6 | title = Neuronal ensemble control of prosthetic devices by a human with tetraplegia | journal = Nature | volume = 442 | issue = 7099 | pages = 164–71 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16838014 | doi = 10.1038/nature04970 | s2cid = 4347367 | bibcode = 2006Natur.442..164H }}</ref> The most common neurodevices available for clinical use are deep brain stimulators implanted in the [[subthalamic nucleus]] for patients with [[Parkinson's disease]].<ref name="Gross2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gross RE | title = What happened to posteroventral pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease and dystonia? | journal = Neurotherapeutics | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 281–93 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18394570 | pmc = 5084170 | doi = 10.1016/j.nurt.2008.02.001 }}</ref>

===Pharmaceuticals===
{{Main|Neuropsychopharmacology}}
Pharmaceuticals play a vital role in maintaining stable brain chemistry, and are the most commonly used neurotechnology by the general public and medicine. Drugs like [[sertraline]], [[methylphenidate]], and [[zolpidem]] act as chemical modulators in the brain, and they allow for normal activity in many people whose brains cannot act normally under physiological conditions. While pharmaceuticals are usually not mentioned and have their own field, the role of pharmaceuticals is perhaps the most far-reaching and commonplace in modern society. Movement of magnetic particles to targeted brain regions for drug delivery is an emerging field of study and causes no detectable circuit damage.<ref name=":0" />