Editing Operation Plumbbob (section)

==Background==

The operation consisted of 29 [[Effects of nuclear explosions|explosions]], of which only two did not produce any nuclear [[nuclear weapon yield|yield]]. Twenty-one laboratories and government agencies were involved. While most ''Operation Plumbbob'' tests contributed to the development of [[warhead]]s for [[Intercontinental ballistic missile|intercontinental]] and [[Intermediate-range ballistic missile|intermediate]] range [[missile]]s, they also tested [[Anti-aircraft warfare|air defense]] and [[Anti-submarine weapon|anti-submarine]] warheads with smaller yields. They included 43 military effects tests on civil and military structures, [[radiation]] and bio-medical studies, and aircraft structural tests. ''Operation Plumbbob'' had the tallest tower tests to date in the U.S. nuclear testing program as well as high-altitude [[balloon]] tests. One nuclear test involved the largest troop maneuver ever associated with U.S. nuclear testing.

Approximately 18,000 members of the U.S. [[United States Air Force|Air Force]], [[United States Army|Army]], [[United States Navy|Navy]] and [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]] participated in exercises [[Desert Rock VII]] and [[Desert Rock VIII|VIII]] during Operation Plumbbob. The military was interested in knowing how the average foot-soldier would stand up, physically and psychologically, to the rigors of the tactical [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear battlefield]].

Almost 1,200 pigs were subjected to bio-medical experiments and blast-effects studies during Operation Plumbbob. On shot ''Priscilla'' (37&nbsp;kt), 719 pigs were used in various experiments on [[Frenchman Flat]]. Some pigs were placed in elevated cages and provided with suits made of different materials, to test which materials provided best protection from the [[Effects of nuclear explosions#Thermal radiation|thermal radiation]]. As shown and reported in the [[PBS]] documentary ''[[Dark Circle (film)|Dark Circle]]'', the pigs survived, but with third-degree burns to 80% of their bodies.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.pbs.org/pov/darkcircle/ |title=Dark Circle |date=March 27, 2007 |people=Judy Irving, Chris Beaver, Ruth Landy (directors) |type=DVD |isbn=0-7670-9304-6 |access-date=September 7, 2017 |archive-date=August 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811113037/http://www.pbs.org/pov/darkcircle/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Other pigs were placed in pens behind large sheets of glass at measured distances from the [[hypocenter]] to test the effects of flying debris on living targets.

Studies were conducted of [[radioactive contamination]] and [[Nuclear fallout|fallout]] from a simulated accidental detonation of a weapon, and projects concerning earth motion, blast loading and [[neutron]] output were carried out.

Nuclear weapons safety experiments were conducted to study the possibility of a nuclear weapon detonation during an accident. On July 26, 1957, a safety experiment, ''Pascal-A'', was detonated in an unstemmed hole at the Nevada Test Site, becoming the first underground shaft nuclear test. The knowledge gained provided data to prevent nuclear yields in case of accidental detonations—for example, in a [[Aviation accidents and incidents|plane crash]].

{{anchor|John}}
The ''John'' shot on July 19, 1957, was the only test of the Air Force's [[AIR-2_Genie|AIR-2A Genie]] rocket with a nuclear warhead.<ref>{{cite news|title=Five Men Agree To Stand Directly Under An Exploding Nuclear Bomb|author=Robert Krulwich|newspaper=NPR|date=July 17, 2012|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/krulwich/2012/07/16/156851175/five-men-agree-to-stand-directly-under-an-exploding-nuclear-bomb|access-date=April 3, 2018|archive-date=April 26, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426133157/http://www.npr.org/blogs/krulwich/2012/07/16/156851175/five-men-agree-to-stand-directly-under-an-exploding-nuclear-bomb|url-status=live}}</ref> It was fired from an [[Northrop F-89 Scorpion|F-89J Scorpion]] fighter over Yucca Flats at the [[Nevada National Security Site]]. On the ground, the Air Force carried out a public relations event by having five Air Force officers and a motion picture photographer stand under ground zero of the blast, which took place at between {{convert|18,500|and|20,000|ft|m}} altitude, with the idea of demonstrating the possibility of the use of the weapon over civilian populations without ill effects.<ref>{{cite news|title=George Yoshitake, Nuclear Test Photographer, Recalls Filming Nuclear Blast 55 Years Ago|author=Timothy Stenovec|publisher=Huffington Post|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/20/george-yoshitake-nuclear-test-five-5-men-nevada_n_1687233.html|date=July 20, 2012|access-date=July 22, 2013|archive-date=December 14, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121214073601/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/20/george-yoshitake-nuclear-test-five-5-men-nevada_n_1687233.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The five officers were Colonel Sidney C. Bruce, later professor of Electrical Engineering at Colorado University, died in 2005; Lieutenant Colonel Frank P. Ball, died in 2003; Major John W. Hughes II, died in 1990; Major Norman B. Bodinger, died in 1997; Major Donald A. Luttrell, died in 2014.<ref>{{cite news| title=Donald Allen Luttrell (obituary)| newspaper=Dallas Morning News| date=January 1, 2015| url=http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/dallasmorningnews/obituary.aspx?pid=173687969| access-date=February 15, 2015| archive-date=March 3, 2016| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303204709/http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/dallasmorningnews/obituary.aspx?pid=173687969| url-status=live}}</ref> The videographer, Akira "George" Yoshitake, died in 2013.<ref>{{cite news| title=Akira "George" Yoshitake (obituary)| newspaper=Lompoc Record| location=Lompoc, California, US| date=October 22, 2013| url=http://www.lompocrecord.com/lifestyles/announcements/obituaries/akira-george-yoshitake/article_e7d7490d-8347-5fab-a8ed-6e0adf725271.html| access-date=May 17, 2014| archive-date=June 14, 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170614005708/http://lompocrecord.com/lifestyles/announcements/obituaries/akira-george-yoshitake/article_e7d7490d-8347-5fab-a8ed-6e0adf725271.html| url-status=live}}</ref>

{{anchor|Rainier}}
The ''Rainier'' shot, conducted September 19, 1957, was the first fully contained underground nuclear test, meaning that no fission products were vented into the atmosphere. This test of 1.7&nbsp;kt could be detected around the world by [[Seismology|seismologists]] using ordinary seismic instruments. The ''Rainier'' test became the prototype for larger and more powerful underground tests.

{{anchor|Priscilla}}
Images from ''[[Upshot-Knothole Grable]]'' were accidentally relabeled as belonging to the ''Priscilla'' shot from ''Operation Plumbbob'' in 1957. As a consequence publications including official government documents have the photo mislabeled. The shots can be told apart by the trails of test rockets, which are prominently featured in images and footage of ''Grable'', but appear almost completely absent at the actual ''Priscilla'' shot.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sublette |first=Carey |title=Operation Plumbbob |url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Plumbob.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031213232218/http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Usa/Tests/Plumbob.html |archive-date=December 13, 2003 |access-date=December 27, 2006 |website=Nuclear Weapon Archive}}</ref>