Editing Panhard AML (section)

==History==
During [[World War II]], the [[French Army]] and their [[Free France|Free French]] successors used a wide variety of vehicles for reconnaissance duties, ranging from the compact ''[[Laffly S15]]'' to the ''[[Panhard 178]]'', which could mount the same 75&nbsp;mm armament as contemporary heavy tanks, and multi-wheeled designs such as the ''Type 201''.<ref name="AFV39" /> After the war it became less desirable to maintain this plethora of armoured cars. In July 1945 Paris issued a requirement for a postwar design combining those features of previous assets – especially the Type 201 – that had shown potential both during and prior to the [[Battle of France]]. This led to the 8x8 [[Panhard EBR]] (''Type 212'') which entered service in 1950.<ref name="Machine">Morse, Stan. ''Modern Light Tanks and Reconnaissance Vehicles''. War Machine, 1983, Volume 2 Issue 19 p. 373–374.</ref> Similarly, in 1956 the French Ministry of Defense was persuaded to commission a replacement for the [[Ferret armoured car|Daimler Ferret]] scout car.<ref name=WMW /> Also manufactured by Panhard, the successor was the AML (''Type 245'') which entered service in 1961.<ref name="Ogorkiewicz2">{{cite book |last=Ogorkiewicz, R. M.|title=Design and development of fighting vehicles|edition=1968|page=181 |publisher=Macdonald Publishers|isbn=978-0-356-01461-6|year=1968}}</ref>

As with much postwar hardware based on the experience of subsequent colonial theatres, the AML was recognized for its outstanding ruggedness, dependability, firepower-to-weight ratio, and adaptability to the numerous minor conflicts waged since 1945.<ref name="AFV39" /> This reputation has led to export success in over forty countries, [[Africa]] being one of its biggest markets.<ref name="Machine" />

===Development===
[[File:AML counterguerrilla vehicle.png|thumb|left|An early AML-60.]]

The Panhard AML was birthed as a private venture by the ''[[Panhard|Société de Constructions Panhard et Levassor]]'', a military subsidiary of [[PSA Peugeot Citroën]]. It was derived in part from the [[Ferret armoured car|Daimler Ferret]], offering important similarities in external design. The first prototype appeared in 1959 and the vehicle was put into production in 1960, with more than 4,000 examples constructed by the time production ended.

In the late 1950s, the [[French Army]] successfully operated a number of Ferret scout cars in [[Algeria]]. Impressive as they were from a conventional standpoint, the rest of France's existing light armour—such as the [[Panhard EBR]] and [[M8 Greyhound]]—were not suitably equipped for [[counter-insurgency]]; battles of the [[Algerian War]] often involved short, sharp, skirmishes which required indirect fire support weapons such as [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]] rather than solid shot and shell.<ref name="Orange">{{cite web|url=http://histoire-militaire.pagesperso-orange.fr/infanterie/autopanhard.htm|title=L'AUTOMITRAILLEUSE LEGERE PANHARD|access-date=15 November 2014}}</ref> In addition, the North African conditions demanded a lighter, less sophisticated, vehicle which would be simpler to maintain and operate. As an interim measure France had purchased two hundred Ferrets from the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="Knox1">{{cite journal |last=Henry |first=Michel |title=French Armor in Algeria |journal=[[Armor magazine]] |pages=12–15 |publisher=US Army Armor Center |location=Fort Knox, Kentucky |date=July–December 1972}}</ref> These were light enough but carried only a single [[general-purpose machine gun]], which was inadequate for offensive purposes. Nevertheless, they were sufficiently successful that there was a possibility of producing the Ferret under licence in France. However, [[Saviem]], [[Berliet]], and Panhard petitioned for bidding on a home-grown vehicle, and in 1956 the [[Ministry of Defence (France)|Ministère de la Défense]] issued specifications for an indigenous wheeled armoured car of similar dimensions and layout to the Ferret but mounting a breech-loading mortar.<ref name=WMW /> By 1959, this had emerged as the ''Auto Mitrailleuse Légère'', designated Model 245 "B" by Panhard.<ref name="Update">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3RgxAQAAIAAJ&q=Damiya Defence Update (International)]''. Defence Update G.m.b.H., 1984, 1984–85 Volume Collected Issues 48–58.</ref> Early prototypes were completed in mid-1959 and by the end of 1961 at least one regiment in Algeria was receiving them.<ref name="Knox1" /> The AML was equipped with a [[Brandt Mle CM60A1|60mm Brandt gun-mortar]] and two medium [[AA-52 machine gun|MAS AA-52 NF-1]] machine guns.<ref name="AFV39" /> Until Panhard's acquisition by [[Citroën]] later in the 1960s, it was manufactured at a single plant near the Porte de Choisy in the [[13th arrondissement of Paris]].<ref name=Linhart>{{cite book|last=Linhart|first=Robert|title=The Assembly Line|date=1981|orig-year=1978|pages=107–108|publisher=University of Massachusetts Press|location=Amherest|isbn=978-0-87023-322-7}}</ref>

The AML was immediately successful, but as the Algerian conflict diminished so did the need for a light mortar carrier deployed in anti-guerrilla operations. A more primary concern was the conventional threat posed by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] airborne armoured vehicles such as the [[ASU-85]] in the event of a [[Warsaw Pact]] invasion by air, which was then a major concern of French military strategists.<ref name="Arquus">{{cite web|title=Panhard AML 90|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|url=https://www.arquus-defense.com/fr/panhard-aml-90|location=[[Versailles, Yvelines]]|publisher=Arquus Defense |date=2023|access-date=20 September 2024}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[South Africa]], an AML customer which had considered adopting the British [[Alvis Saladin]], also charged Panhard technicians to look into the development of an AML variant with equal or superior [[fire support]] capability.<ref name="Orange" /><ref name=Harmse>{{cite book|last1=Harmse|first1=Kyle|last2=Dunstan|first2=Simon|title=South African Armour of the Border War 1975–89|date=23 February 2017|pages=5–9|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4728-1743-3}}</ref> This and the adoption of a highly effective 90&nbsp;mm rifled cannon led to all new AML-245 "C"s being refitted with the H-90 turret sporting the new gun.<ref name="Update" /><ref name=Harmse /> It fired fin-stabilised, shaped charge, projectiles boasting a muzzle velocity of 760&nbsp;m/s and more than capable of penetrating 320&nbsp;mm of [[rolled homogeneous armour]].<ref name=WMW /> In consequence, the later AMLs could even engage [[main battle tank]]s.<ref name="Tank">{{cite book |author1=Bruce Quarry |author2=Mike Spick |name-list-style=amp |title=An Illustrated Guide to Tank Busters|edition=1987|pages=120–125 |publisher=Prentice Hall Press|isbn=978-0-13-451154-2|year=1987 }}</ref><ref name=borderstrike /> In addition to its [[High-explosive anti-tank warhead|high explosive anti-tank]] (HEAT) shells the H-90 also carries fin-stabilised [[Shell (projectile)#HE-Frag|high-explosive]] (HE) projectiles, the total number of rounds stored being 20, compared with the 53 of the original 60&nbsp;mm mortar version.<ref name="Jane1" />

To provide a complete family of wheeled armoured cars, Panhard used AML components to engineer a small personnel carrier, the ''Véhicule Transport de Troupes'', better known as the [[Panhard M3]]. The M3 consisted of a boxy, all-welded, hull with an engine relocated behind the driver in order to provide a large troop compartment at its rear. Its wheelbase was also increased from the AML's 2.5m to a higher 2.7m. and the track from 1.62 to 2.5m. In spite of this, maintenance alongside the AML fleet is rather simplified, given that both vehicles share a 95% [[Interchangeable parts|interchangeability]] in automotive parts.<ref name="AFV39" /> The export success of the AML and M3 led directly to the development of the [[ERC 90 Sagaie|Panhard ERC 90 Sagaie]] and [[Panhard VCR]], respectively, which were six-wheeled and could carry a wider range of heavy weapon systems.<ref name="Ayliffe-Jones" />

Mass production of the AML likely ceased at some point prior to the early 1980s.<ref name=borderstrike>{{cite book|last1=Steenkamp|first1=Willem|author-link1=Willem Steenkamp |title=Borderstrike! South Africa into Angola. 1975–1980|year=2006|publisher=Just Done Productions Publishing|location=Durban, South Africa|isbn=978-1-920169-00-8|edition=3rd |url=http://www.justdone.co.za/shop/index.php?id_product=5&controller=product|access-date=29 September 2014|publication-date=1 March 2006|orig-year=1985|pages=29–43|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006150953/http://www.justdone.co.za/shop/index.php?id_product=5&controller=product|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> However, AMLs continued to be sold from French Army surplus stocks as late as 1999, when the final export orders were placed by [[Yemen]] and [[Tunisia]].<ref name="trade">{{cite web |url=http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/trade_register.php |title=Trade Registers |publisher=Armstrade.sipri.org |access-date=2013-06-20}}</ref> They were also marketed by a number of other second-hand suppliers, including South Africa, [[Israel]], and [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="trade" />

===Specifications===
Fitted with coil spring suspension and drum brakes, the AML lacks hydraulic assist on either brakes or steering; only front wheels steer.<ref name="AFV39" /> Consequently, the steering wheel requires considerable strength to turn while the vehicle is in motion—while stationary it remains effectively locked.<ref name="Mannall">{{cite book |first=David |last=Mannall|title=Battle on the Lomba 1987: The Day a South African Armoured Battalion shattered Angola's Last Mechanized Offensive|edition=2014|pages=48–92 |publisher=Helion and Company|isbn=978-1-909982-02-4|date=2014-11-19}}</ref> Much like the Ferret, rear wheel drive is transmitted directly to epicyclic hub reduction gears, also known as bevel boxes.<ref name="Auto" /> The motor and gearbox have been harnessed via a centrifugal clutch with electromagnetic control, eliminating the need for a clutch pedal.<ref name=Baz>{{cite web|url=http://www.willyshotchkissjeeps.com/diary.asp?id=71 |title=Restoration of the Eland-60 |publisher=French Army Reenactment Group (FARG) |date=2012-01-20 |access-date=2015-07-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721052053/http://www.willyshotchkissjeeps.com/diary.asp?id=71 |archive-date=July 21, 2015 }}</ref> This type of clutch is automatically engaged by gripping the knob of the gearshift lever, which is located behind the driver's seat in the hull floor.<ref name="Auto">''Automotive Industries''. Philadelphia: [[Chilton Company]], 1968, Volume 139 pp. 39—41.</ref> The gearbox assembly consists of two separate gearboxes, one for high and the other for low gear.<ref name="Jane1984AA">{{cite book |last=Christopher F. Foss|title=Jane's Armour and Artillery|date=November 1984|edition=1984|pages=178–183 |publisher=Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd|isbn=978-0-7106-0800-0}}</ref> The low-range gearbox is designed for off-road use and has a reverse gear and a top gear, while the high-range box is for operation on roads and has three low gears and one overdrive.<ref name="JAD">{{cite book |last1=Cullen|first1=Anthony|last2=Foss|first2=Christopher|title=Jane's Land Based Air Defence 1992–93|edition=1992|pages=68–69 |publisher=Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd|isbn=978-0-7106-0595-5|date=July 1991}}</ref> There is a hydraulic dual-circuit handbrake operating on the gearbox output shaft.<ref name="Jane1984AA" />

An AML's crankshaft is carried in three ball bearings to reduce motor friction.<ref name="Auto" /> Powerplant design was inspired by the Panhard EBR and incorporates an air-cooled 1.99 litre four cylinder engine developing 67&nbsp;kW (90&nbsp;hp).<ref name="Compendium">{{cite book |last=Chant |first=Christopher |title=A Compendium of Armaments and Military Hardware |location=New York |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-7102-0720-3 |oclc=14965544 |pages=158–59 }}</ref> The Panhard engine was somewhat underpowered for the five to six tonne armoured car,<ref name="Copley1">Copley, Greogory. Defense & Foreign Affairs Strategic Policy journal. Alexandria: 1989. Vol.17, Collected Issues; pg. 37</ref> and remained prone to mechanical failure in humid climates.<ref name="Auto-Metralhadoras">{{cite journal|last=Coutinho |first=Pereira |url=http://biblioteca.exercito.pt/download.asp?file=multimedia/associa/imag/revista_cavalaria/3_29.pdf |date=May–August 2012 |title=Exército Português Auto-Metralhadoras |journal=Revista da Cavalaria |volume=3 |issue=27 |pages=6–10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220180543/http://biblioteca.exercito.pt/download.asp?file=multimedia%2Fassocia%2Fimag%2Frevista_cavalaria%2F3_29.pdf |archive-date=December 20, 2014 }}</ref> Under temperate conditions it was capable of providing good operational service up to 26,000 kilometres before needing replacement.<ref name="PAJ">''Pakistan Army Journal''. Inspector General Training and Evaluation Branch, General Headquarters: Pakistani Army, 1986. Volume 27, Collected issues 1-3.</ref> AMLs may also be fitted with a variety of liquid-cooled engines, although as demonstrated by its [[Eland Mk7]] counterpart this requires a costly reconstruction of the rear hull to accommodate the new cooling apparatus.<ref name=Baz />

AML hulls are assembled from only 13 welded pieces, with a driver seated at the front of the hull and the turret to his immediate rear.<ref name="Auto" /> Above both doors the hull widens into a circular flange onto which the turret is bolted.<ref name="Ayliffe-Jones">{{cite book|first=Noel|last=Ayliffe-Jones|title=World tanks and reconnaissance vehicles since 1945|year=1984|edition=1984|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldtanksreconn0000ayli/page/83 83–85]|publisher=Hippocrene Books|isbn=978-0-88254-978-1|url=https://archive.org/details/worldtanksreconn0000ayli/page/83}}</ref> This makes the turret basket extremely cramped, and little space is available above an AML-90's turret ring due to the massive gun breech and somewhat haphazard ammunition stowage. There are optical ring sights in front of both turret seats for quick laying of the main armament.<ref name="Ayliffe-Jones" /> AML turrets have a two-man crew, with the commander seated on the left and the gunner on the right.<ref name="JAD" /> Depending on the variant, either may operate the roof-mounted searchlight. Seven periscopes are provided for the turret crew and three for the AML's driver.<ref name="Swiss">{{cite journal|last=Perret-Gentil|first=J. |title=Une nouvelle auto-mitrailleuse Panhard (A.M.L. 245)|journal=Revue Militaire Suisse|pages=42–46|publisher=Imprimeries Reunies SA|location=Lausanne|date=September 1961}}</ref> One of the three driving periscopes may be substituted with an infrared or image intensification periscope for night operations.<ref name="JAD" />

On either side of the hull below the turret ring is an access door, one for the driver on the right and one intended for emergency purposes on the left.<ref name="JAD" /> The left hull door, on which a spare wheel and tyre or fuel cans may be mounted, opens to the rear while the right hull door opens to the front. The engine housing at the rear of the hull is accessed through two access panels,<ref name="JAD" /> and is insulated from the crew compartment by a removable bulkhead.<ref name="AVF">{{cite web|title=Panhard armored vehicle|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|url=http://www.avf.com.sa/prdaction-en07.html|location=Dammam|publisher=Military Industries Corporation (Armoured Vehicles and Heavy Equipment Factory) |date=2010|access-date=20 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225163955/http://www.avf.com.sa/prdaction-en07.html|archive-date=25 December 2014}}</ref> Two sand channels resembling those on the Ferret are bolted to the hull front for crossing ditches and other obstacles.<ref name="JAD" />

The AML uses nitrogen inner tubes (in this case Hutchinson V.P.-P.V.s) adopted from the EBR, providing [[Run-flat tire|run flat]] capability on 41&nbsp;cm (16 in.)-diameter wheels; its 280&nbsp;mm (11 in.) wide [[Michelin]] tyres can be deflated to reduce ground pressure to as low as {{convert|70|to|110|kPa|psi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="AFV39" /> These have been replaced in some Anglophone armies by the [[Dunlop Tyres|Dunlop]] Trak Grips also favoured in [[Bedford Vehicles|Bedford]] and [[Alvis Car and Engineering Company|Alvis]] military vehicles.<ref name="Auto" />