Editing Passport (section)

==History==

=== Etymology and origin ===
[[Etymology|Etymological]] sources{{Such as?|date=August 2024|For instance, in the Republic of Venice during the 15th century, travelers—especially merchants and pilgrims—were often required to obtain official documents issued by Venetian authorities that specified their permitted routes and destinations. These travel permits regulated movement between city gates and jurisdictions within Venetian territory, reflecting the early use of documents similar to modern passports.}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=dinstein‬ |first=Elbert |title=The Role of the Pakistani Passport in Global Mobility |url=https://passportstatuscheck.pk/}}</ref> show that the term "passport" may derive from a document required by some medieval Italian states in order for an individual to pass through the physical harbor (Italian ''passa porto'', "to pass the harbor") or gate (Italian ''passa porte'', "to pass the gates") of a walled city or jurisdiction.<ref>{{cite book |author=George William Lemon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RHwCAAAAQAAJ |title=English etymology; or, A derivative dictionary of the English language |year=1783 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RHwCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PT397 397]}} said that ''passport'' may signify either a permission to pass through a ''portus'' or gate, but noted that an earlier work had contained information that a traveling warrant, a permission or license to pass through the whole dominions of any prince, was originally called a ''pass par tout''.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=James Donald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agA_AAAAcAAJ |title=Chamber's etymological dictionary of the English language |publisher=W. and R. Chambers |year=1867 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=agA_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA366 366] |quote=passport, pass'pōrt, ''n.'' orig. permission ''to pass'' out of ''port'' or through the gates; a written warrant granting permission to travel.}}</ref> Such documents were issued by local authorities to foreign travellers—as opposed to local citizens, as is the modern practice—and generally contained a list of towns and cities the document holder was permitted to enter or pass through. On the whole, documents were not required for travel to seaports, which were considered [[Free trade zone|open trading points]], but documents were required to pass harbor controls and travel inland from seaports.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lopez |first1=Robert Sebationo |title=Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents |last2=W. Raymond |first2=Irving |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2001 |isbn=9780231123563 |pages=36–39}}</ref> The transition from private to state control over movement was an essential aspect of the transition from [[feudalism]] to [[capitalism]]. Communal obligations to provide [[poor relief]] were an important source of the desire for controls on movement.<ref name=":1" /><sup>:10</sup>

=== Antecedents ===
One of the earliest known references to paperwork that served an analogous role to a passport is found in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] 2:7–9, dating from approximately 450&nbsp;BC, states that [[Nehemiah]], an official serving King [[Artaxerxes I of Persia]], asked permission to travel to [[Judea]]; the king granted leave and gave him a letter "to the governors beyond the river" requesting safe passage for him as he traveled through their lands.<ref>{{multiref2|{{bibleverse|Nehemiah|2:7–9|NIV}}|{{cite journal |last1=Coskun |first1=Cumhur|date= 28 December 2017 |title=Cultural Identity and Passport Designs  |url=https://un-pub.eu/ojs/index.php/pntsbs/article/view/2868 |journal=New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences |volume= 4|issue= 11|pages= 139–146 |doi=10.18844/prosoc.v4i11.2868 |access-date= 24 March 2023|doi-access=free }}|{{cite periodical |last1= Davis|first1= John M.|date= July 1998|title= Passport Fraud: Protecting U.S. Passport Integrity|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/fbileb67&div=50&id=&page=|journal= FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin|volume= 67|issue= 7|pages= 9–13|id={{NCJ|175115}}|access-date=24 March 2023}}|{{cite journal |last1=Meyer |first1=Karl E.| date= 2009|title= The Curious Life of the Lowly Passport|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40210108|journal=World Policy Journal |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=71–77  |doi=10.1162/wopj.2009.26.1.71 |jstor=40210108 |access-date=24 March 2023|url-access=subscription}}}}</ref>

The ancient Indian political text [[Arthashastra]] (third century BCE) mentions passes issued at the rate of one ''[[Masha (unit)|masha]]'' per pass to enter and exit the country, and describes the duties of the {{IAST|''Mudrādhyakṣa''}} ({{literally|Superintendent of Seals}}) who must issue sealed passes before a person could enter or leave the countryside.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K85NA7Rg67wC&q=kautilya+city+superintendent&pg=PA63|title=The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra|last=Boesche|first=Roger|date=2003|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=9780739106075|pages=62 A superintendent must issue sealed passes before one could ''enter or leave the countryside''(A.2.34.2,181) a practice that might constitute the first passbooks and passports in world history|language=en}}</ref>

Passports were an important part of the Chinese bureaucracy as early as the [[Western Han]] (202 BC – 9 AD), if not in the [[Qin dynasty]]. They required such details as age, height, and bodily features.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |editor-last1=Nylan |editor-first1=Michael |editor-last2=Loewe |editor-first2=Michael |title=China's early empires: a re-appraisal |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521852975 |location=Cambridge |pages=297, 317–318 |oclc=428776512 | ol=OL24864515M | editor-link1= Michael Nylan  | editor-link2= Michael Loewe | lccn=2011378715 }}</ref> These passports ({{Lang-zh|t=傳|hp=zhuan|labels=no}}) determined a person's ability to move throughout imperial counties and through points of control. Even children needed passports, but those of one year or less who were in their mother's care may not have needed them.<ref name=":0" />

In the medieval [[Caliphate|Islamic Caliphate]], a form of passport was the ''bara'a'', a [[receipt]] for taxes paid. Only people who paid their ''[[zakat|zakah]]'' (for [[Muslim]]s) or ''[[jizya]]'' (for [[dhimmi]]s) taxes were permitted to travel to different regions of the Caliphate; thus, the ''bara'a'' receipt was a "basic passport".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Jews of Medieval Islam: Community, Society, and Identity|first=Daniel|last= Frank| publisher =[[Brill Publishers]]|year=1995|isbn=90-04-10404-6|page=6}}</ref>

In the [[12th century]], the [[Republic of Genoa]] issued a document called ''Bulletta'', which was issued to the nationals of the Republic who were traveling to the ports of the emporiums and the ports of the Genoese colonies overseas, as well as to foreigners who entered them.

King [[Henry V of England]] is credited with having invented what some consider the first British passport in the modern sense, as a means of helping his subjects prove who they were in foreign lands. The earliest reference to these documents is found in a [[Safe Conducts Act 1414|1414 Act of Parliament]].<ref name="brief history">[https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2006/nov/17/travelnews A brief history of the passport] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009193215/https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2006/nov/17/travelnews |date=2019-10-09 }} – The Guardian</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7634744.stm |title=Analysis: The first ID cards |access-date=2008-09-27 | publisher =BBC |date= 2008-09-25 | first=Dominic | last=Casciani}}</ref> In 1540, granting travel documents in England became a role of the [[Privy Council of England]], and it was around this time that the term "passport" was used. In 1794, issuing British passports became the job of the Office of the [[Secretary of State (United Kingdom)|Secretary of State]].<ref name="brief history"/> In the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the 1548 Imperial [[Diet of Augsburg]] required the public to hold imperial documents for travel, at the risk of permanent exile.<ref>[[John Torpey]], Le contrôle des passeports et la liberté de circulation. Le cas de l'Allemagne au XIXe siècle, Genèses, 1998, n° 1, pp. 53–76</ref>

In 1791, [[Louis XVI]] masqueraded as a valet during his [[Flight to Varennes]] as passports for the nobility typically included a number of persons listed by their function but without further description.<ref name=":1" /><sup>:31–32</sup>

A Pass-Card Treaty of October 18, 1850 among German states standardized information including issuing state, name, status, residence, and description of bearer. Tramping journeymen and jobseekers of all kinds were not to receive pass-cards.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Torpey|first=John|title=The Invention of the Passport|year=2018}}</ref><sup>:92–93</sup>

=== Modern development ===
A rapid expansion of [[Rail transport|railway infrastructure]] and wealth in Europe beginning in the mid-nineteenth century led to large increases in the volume of international travel and a consequent unique dilution of the passport system for approximately thirty years prior to [[World War I]]. The speed of trains, as well as the number of passengers that crossed multiple borders, made enforcement of passport laws difficult. The general reaction was the relaxation of passport requirements.<ref name="PASSCanada">{{cite web | title= History of Passports |work= Government of Canada|date= 10 April 2014|url= https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/canadians/celebrate-being-canadian/teachers-corner/history-passports.html | access-date=April 7, 2018}}</ref> In the later part of the nineteenth century and up to World War I, passports were not required, on the whole, for travel within Europe, and crossing a border was a relatively straightforward procedure.  Consequently, comparatively few people held passports.

During World War I, European governments introduced border passport requirements for security reasons, and to control the emigration of people with useful skills. These controls remained in place after the war, becoming a standard, though controversial, procedure. British tourists of the 1920s complained, especially about attached photographs and physical descriptions, which they considered led to a "nasty dehumanisation".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marrus |first=Michael Robert |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12344863 |title=The unwanted : European refugees in the twentieth century |date=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |others=Mazal Holocaust Collection |isbn=0-19-503615-8 |location=New York |pages=95 |oclc=12344863}}</ref> The [[History of British nationality law#British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914|British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act]] was passed in 1914, clearly defining the notions of [[citizenship]] and creating a booklet form of the passport.

In 1920, the [[League of Nations]] held a conference on passports, the [[Paris Conference on Passports & Customs Formalities and Through Tickets]].<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.indiana.edu/~league/1920.htm | title= League of Nations Photo Archive – Timeline – 1920 | publisher= Indiana University | access-date= July 13, 2013 | archive-date= April 2, 2020 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200402162934/http://www.indiana.edu/~league/1920.htm | url-status= dead }}</ref> Passport guidelines and a general booklet design resulted from the conference,<ref>{{Cite book | publisher = League of Nations Secretariat, Information Section | url = https://bl-libg-doghill.ads.iu.edu/league-web/book/p63.html | chapter = League of Nations 'International' or 'Standard' passport design |title =Illustrated album of the League of Nations|date=1926 | place = Geneva | page=63| access-date = 2010-06-27 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110719215005/https://bl-libg-doghill.ads.iu.edu/league-web/book/p63.html | archive-date = 2011-07-19 | url-status = dead }}</ref> which was followed up by conferences in 1926 and 1927.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~league/conferencedata.htm|title=International Conferences – League of Nations Archives|year=2002|publisher=Center for the Study of Global Change|access-date=2009-08-05}}</ref> The [[League of Nations]] issued [[Nansen passport]]s to [[Stateless person|stateless]] [[refugees]] from 1922 to 1938.<ref>{{cite web|last=Giaimo|first=Cara|date=2017-02-07|title=The Little-Known Passport That Protected 450,000 Refugees|url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/nansen-passport-refugees|access-date=2022-01-30|website=Atlas Obscura|language=en}}</ref>

While the United Nations held a travel conference in 1963, no passport guidelines resulted from it. Passport standardization came about in 1980, under the auspices of the [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]]. ICAO standards include those for [[machine-readable passport]]s.<ref name="ICAO MRTD">{{cite web |title=Welcome to the ICAO Machine Readable Travel Documents Programme |url=http://www.icao.int/Security/mrtd/Pages/default.aspx |publisher=ICAO |access-date=2012-09-06}}</ref> Such passports have an area where some of the information otherwise written in textual form is written as strings of alphanumeric characters, printed in a manner suitable for [[optical character recognition]]. This enables border controllers and other law enforcement agents to process these passports more quickly, without having to input the information manually into a computer. ICAO publishes Doc 9303 ''Machine Readable Travel Documents'', the technical standard for machine-readable passports.<ref name="ICAO 2006">{{cite book |publisher=ICAO |title=Machine Readable Travel Documents, Doc 9303 |year=2006 |edition=Sixth |url=http://www.icao.int/Security/mrtd/Pages/Document9303.aspx |access-date=2013-08-09}}</ref> A more recent standard is for [[biometric passport]]s. These contain [[biometrics]] to authenticate the identity of travellers. The passport's critical information is stored on a small [[RFID]] computer chip, much like information stored on [[smartcard]]s. Like some smartcards, the passport booklet design calls for an embedded contactless chip that is able to hold [[digital signature]] data to ensure the integrity of the passport and the biometric data.

Historically, legal authority to issue passports is founded on the exercise of each country's executive discretion. Certain legal tenets follow, namely: first, passports are issued in the name of the state; second, no person has a legal right to be issued a passport; third, each country's government, in exercising its executive discretion, has complete and unfettered discretion to refuse to issue or to revoke a passport; and fourth, that the latter discretion is not subject to judicial review.  However, legal scholars including A.J. Arkelian have argued that evolutions in both the constitutional law of democratic countries and the international law applicable to all countries now render those historical tenets both obsolete and unlawful.<ref>Arkelian, A.J.  "The Right to a Passport in Canadian Law."  ''The Canadian Yearbook of International Law'', Volume XXI, 1983.  Republished in November 2012 in Artsforum Magazine at http://artsforum.ca/ideas/in-depth {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202033527/http://artsforum.ca/ideas/in-depth |date=2013-12-02 }}</ref><ref>Arkelian, A.J. "Freedom of Movement of Persons Between States and Entitlement to Passports".  ''Saskatchewan Law Review'', Volume 49, No. 1, 1984–85.</ref>

<gallery>
File:Arabic papyrus with an exit permit, dated January 24, 722 CE, pointing to the regulation of travel activities. From Hermopolis Magna, Egypt.jpg|Arabic papyrus with an exit permit, dated January 24, 722 AD, pointing to the regulation of travel activities. From Hermopolis Magna, Egypt
File:First Japanese passport 1866.jpg|First [[Japanese passport]], issued in 1866
File:Italian passport 1872.jpg|Italian passport, issued in 1872
File:QingPassport.jpg|Chinese passport from the [[Qing dynasty]], 24th Year of the Guangxu Reign, 1898
File:Ottoman-russian-empire-passport.jpg|An [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] passport (passavant) issued to a [[Russian Empire|Russian]] subject dated July 24, 1900
File:WW2 Spanish official passport.jpg|[[World War II]] Spanish official passport issued in late 1944 and used during the last six months of the war by an official being sent to [[Berlin]]
</gallery>