Editing Pasteurization (section)

==History==

[[File:Louis Pasteur Experiment.svg|thumb|Louis Pasteur's pasteurization experiment illustrates the fact that the spoilage of liquid was caused by particles in the air rather than the air itself. These experiments were important pieces of evidence supporting the idea of the germ theory of disease.]]
[[File:Industry during the First World War- Cheshire Q28329.jpg|thumb|A worker removing beer bottles from a pasteurization tank at a brewery in Cheshire, England (September 1918)]]
Heating wine for preservation has been known in China since AD 1117 and was documented in Japan in the diary ''Tamonin-nikki'' written by a series of monks between 1478 and 1618.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/amit/books/hornsey-2003-history-of-beer.html|title=A History of Beer and Brewing|last=Hornsey |first=Ian Spencer |first2=George |last2=Bacon |publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-85404-630-0|page=30|quote=[…] sake is pasteurized and it is interesting to note that a pasteurization technique was first mentioned in 1568 in the ''Tamonin-nikki'', the diary of a Buddhist monk, indicating that it was practiced in Japan some 300 years before Pasteur. In China, the first country in East Asia to develop a form of pasteurization, the earliest record of the process is said to date from 1117.|access-date=2 January 2011|archive-date=12 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812214517/https://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/amit/books/hornsey-2003-history-of-beer.html/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1768, research performed by the Italian priest and scientist [[Lazzaro Spallanzani]] proved that a product could be made "sterile" after thermal processing. Spallanzani boiled meat broth for one hour, sealed the container immediately after boiling, and noticed that the broth did not spoil and was free from microorganisms.<ref name="Tewari-2007"/><ref name="VR19282">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQ_hjAuH9xEC&pg=PA113|title=Life of Pasteur 1928|last1=Vallery-Radot|first1=René|date=2003-03-01|isbn=978-0-7661-4352-4|pages=113–14|publisher=Kessinger|access-date=8 January 2016|archive-date=1 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101072908/https://books.google.com/books?id=rQ_hjAuH9xEC&pg=PA113|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1795, a Parisian chef and confectioner named [[Nicolas Appert]] began experimenting with ways to preserve foodstuffs, succeeding with soups, vegetables, juices, dairy products, jellies, jams, and syrups. He placed the food in glass jars, sealed them with cork and sealing wax, and placed them in boiling water.<ref name="biodict23">{{cite book|title=Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780415060424|url-access=registration|publisher=Routledge|year=1996|isbn=978-0-415-19399-3|editor=Lance Day, Ian McNeil}}</ref> In that same year, the French military offered a cash prize of 12,000 [[French franc|francs]] for a new method to preserve food. After some 14 or 15 years of experimenting, Appert submitted his invention and won the prize in January 1810.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cFzIphx7CUQC&pg=PA187|title=Food Packaging: Principles End Practice|author1=Gordon L. Robertson|publisher=Marcel Dekker|year=1998|isbn=978-0-8247-0175-8|page=187|access-date=8 January 2016|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819023857/https://books.google.com/books?id=cFzIphx7CUQC&pg=PA187|url-status=live}}</ref> Later that year, Appert published ''L'Art de conserver les substances animales et végétales'' ("''The Art of Preserving Animal and Vegetable Substances''"). This was the first cookbook on modern food preservation methods.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofscience.com/G2I/timeline/index.php?id=2541|title=The First Book on Modern Food Preservation Methods (1810)|date=2009-09-29|publisher=Historyofscience.com|access-date=2014-03-19|archive-date=1 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101210920/http://www.historyofscience.com/G2I/timeline/index.php?id=2541|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dTLjD_irdS4C&pg=PA66|title=Minimally processed refrigerated fruits and vegetables|last1=Wiley|first1=R. C|year=1994|isbn=978-0-412-05571-3|page=66|publisher=Springer |quote=Nicolas Appert in 1810 was probably the first person [...]|access-date=8 January 2016|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819035226/https://books.google.com/books?id=dTLjD_irdS4C&pg=PA66|url-status=live}}</ref>

''La Maison Appert'' {{Gloss|The House of Appert}}, in the town of [[Massy, Essonne|Massy]], near Paris, became the first food-bottling factory in the world,<ref name="biodict23"/> preserving a variety of foods in sealed bottles. Appert's filled thick, large-mouthed glass bottles with produce of every description, ranging from beef and fowl to eggs, [[milk]], and prepared dishes. He left air space at the top of the bottle, and the cork would then be sealed firmly in the jar by using a [[vise]]. The bottle was then wrapped in canvas to protect it while it was dunked into boiling water and then boiled for as much time as Appert deemed appropriate for cooking the contents thoroughly. Appert patented his method, sometimes called ''appertisation'' in his honor.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Garcia |last2=Adrian |first1=Rebeca |first2=Jean |date=March 2009|title=Nicolas Appert: Inventor and Manufacturer|journal=Food Reviews International|volume=25|issue=2|pages=115–125|doi=10.1080/87559120802682656|s2cid=83865891}}</ref>

Appert's method was so simple and workable that it quickly became widespread. In 1810, the British inventor and merchant [[Peter Durand]], also of French origin, patented his method, but this time in a [[tin can]], so creating the modern-day process of [[canning]] foods. In 1812, the Englishmen [[Bryan Donkin]] and John Hall purchased both patents and began producing [[preserves]]. A decade later, Appert's canning method had come to America.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Toffler |first=Alvin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVNSEAAAQBAJ&dq=future+shock+appert&pg=PA542 |title=Future Shock |date=2022-01-11 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-593-15976-7 |pages=27 |language=en}}</ref> Tin can production was not common until the beginning of the 20th century, partly because a hammer and chisel were needed to open cans until the invention of a [[can opener]] by Robert Yeates in 1855.<ref name="biodict23"/>

A less aggressive method was developed by French chemist [[Louis Pasteur]] during an 1864 summer holiday in [[Arbois]].<ref name="VR192822">{{cite book |last1=Vallery-Radot |first1=René |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3UTAAAAYAAJ |title=Life of Pasteur 1928 |date=2003-03-01 |isbn=978-0-7661-4352-4 |pages=113–14 |access-date=22 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719140715/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/The_Life_of_Pasteur/k3UTAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |archive-date=19 July 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> To remedy the frequent acidity of the local aged [[wine]]s, he found out experimentally that it is sufficient to heat a young wine to only about {{convert|50|–|60|C|F}} for a short time to kill the microbes, and that the wine could subsequently be [[Aging of wine|aged]] without sacrificing the final quality.<ref name="VR192822" /> In honor of Pasteur, this process is known as pasteurization.<ref name="Tewari-2007"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/pasteur_louis.shtml|title=History – Louis Pasteur|publisher=BBC|access-date=25 December 2019|archive-date=3 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503190420/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/pasteur_louis.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and [[beer]] from souring,<ref>Carlisle, Rodney (2004). ''Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries'', p. 357. John Wiley & Songs, Inc., New Jersey. {{ISBN|0-471-24410-4}}.</ref> and it would be many years before milk was pasteurized.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Lingering Heat over Pasteurized Milk |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/stories/magazine/the-lingering-heat-over-pasteurized-milk/ |access-date=2024-03-16 |website=Science History Institute |language=en-US}}</ref> In the United States in the 1870s, before milk was regulated, it was common for milk to contain substances intended to mask spoilage.<ref name="HwangHuang20092">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbOrQP33U6EC&pg=PA88|title=Ready-to-Eat Foods: Microbial Concerns and Control Measures|last1=Hwang|first1=Andy|last2=Huang|first2=Lihan|date=31 January 2009|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-6862-7|page=88|access-date=19 April 2011|archive-date=2 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602041236/http://books.google.com/books?id=AbOrQP33U6EC&pg=PA88|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Milk===
{{Details|Raw milk}}

[[File:Milk Vat.jpg|thumb|{{convert|180|kg|lb}} of milk in a cheese vat]]
Milk is an excellent [[Growth medium|medium]] for microbial growth,<ref name="indianabiolab2">{{cite web|url=http://www.disknet.com/indiana_biolab/b028.htm|title=Harold Eddleman, ''Making Milk Media'', Indiana Biolab|publisher=Disknet.com|access-date=2014-03-19|archive-date=13 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513012416/http://www.disknet.com/indiana_biolab/b028.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> and when it is stored at ambient temperature, bacteria and other pathogens soon proliferate.<ref name="ilca2">{{cite web|url=http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/ilca_manual4/Microbiology.htm#P122_10360|title=Frank O'Mahony, ''Rural dairy technology: Experiences in Ethiopia'', International Livestock Centre for Africa|publisher=Ilri.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220042431/http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/ilca_manual4/Microbiology.htm#P122_10360|archive-date=20 February 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=2014-03-19}}</ref> The US [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) says improperly handled raw milk is responsible for nearly three times more hospitalizations than any other food-borne disease source, making it one of the world's most dangerous food products.<ref name="foodsmart2">{{cite web|url=http://www.foodsmart.govt.nz/food-safety/high-risk-foods/raw-milk/rawmilk.htm|title=Food safety of raw milk|publisher=Foodsmart.govt.nz|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408141723/http://www.foodsmart.govt.nz/food-safety/high-risk-foods/raw-milk/rawmilk.htm|archive-date=8 April 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=2014-03-19}}</ref><ref name="NonpasteurizedDairyProductsCDC2">{{cite journal|url=https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/18/3/pdfs/11-1370.pdf|title=Nonpasteurized Dairy Products, Disease Outbreaks, and State Laws – United States, 1993–2006|last1=Langer|first1=Adam J.|last2=Ayers|first2=Tracy|access-date=11 February 2015|last3=Grass|first3=Julian|last4=Lynch|first4=Michael|last5=Angulo|first5=Frederick|last6=Mahon|first6=Barbara|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|year=2012|volume=18|issue=3|pages=385–91|doi=10.3201/eid1803.111370|pmid=22377202|pmc=3309640|archive-date=23 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150823063410/http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/18/3/pdfs/11-1370.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Diseases prevented by pasteurization include [[tuberculosis]], [[brucellosis]], [[diphtheria]], [[scarlet fever]], and [[Q-fever]]; it also kills the harmful bacteria ''[[Salmonella]]'', ''[[Listeria]]'', ''[[Yersinia]]'', ''[[Campylobacter]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'', and ''[[Escherichia coli O157:H7]]'',<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20100620202412/http://www.fcs.msue.msu.edu//ff/pdffiles/foodsafety2.pdf Milk Pasteurization: Guarding against disease]", Michigan State University Extension</ref><ref>Smith, P.W., (August 1981), "Milk Pasteurization" Fact Sheet Number 57, U.S. Department of Agriculture Research Service, Washington, DC</ref> among others.

Before industrialization, dairy cows were kept in urban areas to limit the time between milk production and consumption, hence the risk of disease transmission via raw milk was reduced.<ref name="hotchkiss2">{{Citation|title=Recording and Control C1900 in Pasteurization processes|url=https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|year=2018|access-date=17 May 2018|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517153039/https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> As urban densities increased and supply chains lengthened to the distance from country to city, raw milk (often days old) became recognized as a source of disease. For example, between 1912 and 1937, some 65,000 people died of tuberculosis contracted from consuming milk in England and Wales alone.<ref name="wilson2">{{Citation|last=Wilson|first=G.S.|title=The Pasteurization of Milk|year=1943|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=1|issue=4286|pages=261–62|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.4286.261|pmc=2282302|pmid=20784713}}</ref> Because tuberculosis has a long incubation period in humans, it was difficult to link unpasteurized milk consumption with the disease.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pearce|first=Lindsay|date=2002|title=Bacterial diseases – The impact of milk processing to reduce risks|url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=BE2003000067|journal=Bulletin of the International Dairy Federation|language=en|volume=372|pages=20–25|issn=0250-5118|access-date=23 June 2017|archive-date=29 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729132515/http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=BE2003000067|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1892, chemist [[Ernst Lederle]] experimentally inoculated milk from tuberculosis-diseased cows into guinea pigs, which caused them to develop the disease.<ref name="Weinstein-1947">{{Cite journal|last1=Weinstein|first1=I|date=1947|title=Eighty years of public health in New York City|journal=Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine|volume=23|issue=4|pages=221–237|pmc=1871552|pmid=19312527}}</ref> In 1910, Lederle, then in the role of Commissioner of Health, introduced mandatory pasteurization of milk in [[New York City]].<ref name="Weinstein-1947" />

Developed countries adopted milk pasteurization to prevent such disease and loss of life, and as a result, milk is now considered a safer food.<ref name="hotchkiss22">{{Citation |title=Recording and Control C1900 in Pasteurization processes|url=https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|year=2018|access-date=17 May 2018|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517153039/https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> A traditional form of pasteurization by scalding and straining of cream to increase the keeping qualities of [[butter]] was practiced in Great Britain in the 18th century and was introduced to [[Boston]] in the British Colonies by 1773,<ref>Kaden H. 2017. Food Preservation tools and techniques: In Food Industry process and technologies. Library press. pages 129–178</ref> although it was not widely practiced in the United States for the next 20 years. Pasteurization of milk was suggested by [[Franz von Soxhlet]] in 1886.<ref>Franz Soxhlet (1886) "Über Kindermilch und Säuglings-Ernährung" (On milk for babies and infant nutrition), ''Münchener medizinische Wochenschrift'' (Munich Medical Weekly), vol. 33, pp. 253, 276.</ref> In the early 20th century, [[Milton Joseph Rosenau]] established the standards – i.e. low-temperature, slow heating at {{convert|60|C|F}} for 20 minutes – for the pasteurization of milk<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishcurrents.org/january-1-pasteurization-34519|title=January 1: Pasteurization|date=1 January 2015|website=Jewish Currents|access-date=4 January 2015|archive-date=4 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104161822/http://jewishcurrents.org/january-1-pasteurization-34519|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4840b1.htm|title=Milton J. Rosenau, M.D.|website=cdc.gov|access-date=7 September 2017|archive-date=23 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823221008/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4840b1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> while at the United States Marine Hospital Service, notably in his publication of ''The Milk Question'' (1912).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/27504#/summary|title=Details – The milk question |via=biodiversitylibrary.org|publisher=Houghton Mifflin company|year=1912|access-date=14 January 2018|archive-date=2 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602143111/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/27504#/summary|url-status=live}}</ref> States in the U.S. soon began enacting mandatory dairy pasteurization laws, with the first in 1947, and in 1973 the U.S. federal government required pasteurization of milk used in any interstate commerce.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncleg.net/DocumentSites/Committees/HSCAR/Meetings/2011-2012/4%20-%20March%207/2012-0307%20B.Riley-%20NCGA%20Research%20-%20Fed%20and%20State%20Regs%20of%20Raw%20Milk%20Presentation.pdf|title=Federal and State Regulation of Raw Milk|access-date=23 July 2016|archive-date=6 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206020946/http://www.ncleg.net/DocumentSites/Committees/HSCAR/Meetings/2011-2012/4%20-%20March%207/2012-0307%20B.Riley-%20NCGA%20Research%20-%20Fed%20and%20State%20Regs%20of%20Raw%20Milk%20Presentation.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The shelf life of refrigerated pasteurized milk is greater than that of [[raw milk]]. For example, high-temperature, short-time ([[HTST]]) pasteurized milk typically has a [[Refrigeration|refrigerated]] [[shelf life]] of two to three weeks, whereas ultra-pasteurized milk can last much longer, sometimes two to three months. When ultra-heat treatment ([[Ultra-high-temperature processing|UHT]]) is combined with sterile handling and container technology (such as [[Aseptic processing|aseptic packaging]]), it can even be stored non-refrigerated for up to 9 months.<ref name="hotchkiss23">{{Citation |title=Recording and Control C1900 in Pasteurization processes|url=https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|year=2018|access-date=17 May 2018|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517153039/https://library.e.abb.com/public/81ad901d59844fd3ba52a1ac77bcf3b6/TD_RandC_019-EN_A.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the [[Centers for Disease Control]], between 1998 and 2011, 79% of dairy-related disease outbreaks in the United States were due to raw milk or cheese products.<ref name="CDC Raw Milk2">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/rawmilk/raw-milk-questions-and-answers.html#related-outbreaks|title=Raw Milk Questions and Answers – Food Safety|date=2014-03-07|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control]]|access-date=2014-03-19|archive-date=30 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730000530/https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/rawmilk/raw-milk-questions-and-answers.html#related-outbreaks|url-status=live}}</ref> They report 148 outbreaks and 2,384 illnesses (with 284 requiring hospitalization), as well as two deaths due to raw milk or cheese products during the same period.<ref name="CDC Raw Milk2" />

===Medical equipment===

Medical equipment, notably respiratory and anesthesia equipment, is often disinfected using hot water, as an alternative to chemical disinfection. The temperature is raised to {{cvt|70|C}} for 30 minutes.<ref name="Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/guidelines/disinfection/disinfection-methods/miscellaneous.html|title=Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities|year=2008|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control]]|access-date=2018-07-10|archive-date=11 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711020004/https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/guidelines/disinfection/disinfection-methods/miscellaneous.html|url-status=live}}</ref> More thorough sterilization can be performed at higher temperatures and pressures in an [[autoclave]].