Editing Paul Robeson (section)

==Early life==

===1898–1915: Childhood===
[[File:PAUL ROBESON HOUSE, PRINCETON, MERCER COUNTY.jpg|thumb|right|Robeson's birthplace in [[Princeton, New Jersey]]]]
Robeson was born in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], in 1898, to Reverend [[William Drew Robeson I|William Drew Robeson]] and [[Maria Louisa Bustill]].<ref name="mother">{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=[http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/59/04712426/0471242659.pdf 3]}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=18}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=4–5}}</ref> His mother, Maria, was a member of the [[Bustill family|Bustills]], a prominent [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] family of mixed ancestry.<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=5–6, 145–149}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=4–5}}; {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=10–12}}</ref> His father, William, was of [[Igbo people|Igbo]] origin and was born into slavery.<ref>{{harvnb|Nollen|2010}}</ref><ref name="Star">{{Cite web|url=https://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/a-2d78-The-inheritor-of-his-fathers-political-mantle#.Wb5J9ciGM2x|title=The inheritor of his father's political mantle|access-date=September 17, 2017|work=[[Morning Star (British newspaper)|Morning Star]]|date=May 1, 2014|first=Hywel|last=Francis|author-link=Hywel Francis|archive-date=September 17, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917171056/https://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/a-2d78-The-inheritor-of-his-fathers-political-mantle#.Wb5J9ciGM2x|url-status=live}}</ref> William escaped from a [[plantations in the American South|plantation]] in his teens<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=4, 337–338}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=4}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=4}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=9–10}}</ref> and eventually became the minister of Princeton's Witherspoon Street Presbyterian Church in 1881.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=5–6, 14}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=4–5}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=4–6}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=17, 26}}</ref> Robeson had three brothers: William Drew Jr. (born 1881), Reeve (born {{circa|1887}}), and Ben (born {{circa|1893}}); and one sister, Marian (born {{circa|1895}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=3}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=18}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=21}}</ref>

In 1900, a disagreement between William and white financial supporters of the Witherspoon church arose with apparent racial undertones,<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=6–7}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=5–6}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=18–20}}</ref> which were prevalent in Princeton.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=16–17}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=12}}</ref> William, who had the support of his entirely black congregation, resigned in 1901.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=5–6}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=6–9}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=18–20}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=26}}</ref> The loss of his position forced him to work menial jobs.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=9}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=21}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=6–7}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=28}}</ref> Three years later when Robeson was six, his mother, who was nearly blind, died in a house fire.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=22–23}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=8}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=7–8}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=25–29}}; cf. {{harvnb|Seton|1958|p=7}}</ref> Eventually, William became financially incapable of providing a house for himself and his children still living at home, Ben and Paul, so they moved into the attic of a store in Westfield, New Jersey.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=11}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=9}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=27–29}}</ref>

William found a stable parsonage at the St. Thomas [[African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church|A.M.E. Zion]] in 1910,<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=9–10}}; cf. {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=39}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=13–14}}</ref> where Robeson filled in for his father during sermons when he was called away.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=17}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=30}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=46–47}}</ref> In 1912, Robeson began attending [[Somerville High School (New Jersey)|Somerville High School]] in New Jersey,<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=37–38}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=12}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=49–51}}</ref> where he performed in ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]'' and ''[[Othello]]'', sang in the chorus, and excelled in football, basketball, baseball and track.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=13–16}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=34–36}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=43, 46, 48–49}}</ref> His athletic dominance elicited racial taunts which he ignored.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=37–38}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=16}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=13–16}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=46–47}}</ref> Prior to his graduation, he won a statewide academic contest for a scholarship to Rutgers and was named class valedictorian.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=41–42}}; cf. {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=54–55}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=17}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=17–18}}; contra. The dispute is over whether it was a one-year or four-year scholarship. {{cite news |id={{ProQuest|498725929}} |title=Robeson Found Emphasis to Win Too Great in College Football: Giant Negro Actor and Singer, Former Grid Star, Says Color Prejudices Forgotten on Stage |newspaper=Boston Daily Globe |date=March 13, 1926 |page=A7 }}</ref> He took a summer job as a waiter in [[Narragansett Pier]], Rhode Island, where he befriended [[Fritz Pollard]], later to be the first African-American coach in the National Football League.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=11}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=40–41}}, {{harvnb|Seton|1958|pp=18–19}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=53–54, 65}}, {{harvnb|Carroll|1998|p=58}}</ref>

===1915–1919: Rutgers College===
[[File:Pollard and Robeson.jpg|thumb|[[Fritz Pollard]] (left) and Robeson in a photo from the March 1918 issue of ''[[The Crisis]]'']]
In late 1915, Robeson became the third African-American student ever enrolled at Rutgers, and the only one at the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=19}}; cf. {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=60, 64}}, {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=20}}</ref> He tried out for the [[Rutgers Scarlet Knights football]] team,<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=45–49}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=19, 24}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=60, 65}}</ref> and his resolve to make the squad was tested as his teammates engaged in excessive play, during which his nose was broken and his shoulder dislocated.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=20–21}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=49–50}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=61–63}}</ref> The coach, [[George Sanford (American football)|Foster Sanford]], decided he had overcome the provocation and announced that he had made the team.<ref name="NYT 19440116">{{cite news |last1=Gelder |first1=Robert van |title=Robeson Remembers: An Interview With the Star of ''Othello'', Partly About His Past |id={{ProQuest|107050287}} |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1944/01/16/archives/robeson-remembers-an-interview-with-the-star-of-othello-partly.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=January 16, 1944 |access-date=October 22, 2023 |archive-date=November 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106204105/https://www.nytimes.com/1944/01/16/archives/robeson-remembers-an-interview-with-the-star-of-othello-partly.html |url-status=live }}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=49–50}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=20–21}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=22–23}}</ref>

Robeson joined the debating team<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yeakey |first1=Lamont H. |title=A Student Without Peer: The Undergraduate College Years of Paul Robeson |journal=The Journal of Negro Education |date=1973 |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=489–503 |doi=10.2307/2966562 |jstor=2966562 }}</ref> and he sang off-campus for spending money,<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=24}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=54}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=71}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=28, 31–32}}</ref> and on-campus with the [[Glee Club]] informally, as membership required attending all-white mixers.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=54}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=24}}, {{harvnb|Levy|2003|pp=1–2}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=71}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=28}}</ref> He also joined the other collegiate athletic teams.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=24}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=54}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=70}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=35}}</ref> As a sophomore, amidst Rutgers' sesquicentennial celebration, he was benched when a Southern football team, [[Washington and Lee University]], refused to take the field because the Scarlet Knights had fielded a Negro, Robeson.<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=68–70}}; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=22–23}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=59–60}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=27}}, {{harvnb|Pitt|1972|p=42}}</ref>

After a standout junior year of football,<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=22, 573}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=29–30}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=74–82}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=65–66}}</ref> he was recognized in ''[[The Crisis]]'' for his athletic, academic, and singing talents.<ref name="Inc.1918">{{cite magazine|volume=15|issue=5|title=Men of the Month|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=AloEAAAAMBAJ|page=229}}|date=March 1918|magazine=[[The Crisis]]|issn=0011-1422|pages=229–231}}; cf. {{harvnb|Marable|2005|p=171}}</ref> At this time{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=68}} his father fell grievously ill.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=33}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=25}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=68–69}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=85–87}}</ref> Robeson took the sole responsibility in caring for him, shuttling between Rutgers and Somerville.{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=68–69}} His father, who was the "glory of his boyhood years"{{sfn|Seton|1958|p=6}} soon died, and at Rutgers, Robeson expounded on the incongruity of African Americans fighting to protect America in [[World War I]] but not having the same opportunities in the United States as whites.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=25}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=68–69}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=86–87}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=33}}</ref>

[[File:CapandSkull-Robeson.jpg|thumb|right|Robeson (far left) was part of the Rutgers University class of 1919 and one of four students accepted into the [[Cap and Skull]] honor society.]]
He finished university with four annual oratorical triumphs<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=24}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=69, 74, 437}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=35}}</ref> and [[varsity letter]]s in multiple sports.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hall of Fame: Robeson|date=January 19, 1995|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=NNVHAAAAIBAJ&dq=robeson%20and%20brown%20inducted%20in%20hall&pg=4842%2C2952039|work=[[Record-Journal]]|page=20|access-date=May 29, 2020|archive-date=July 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728044543/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=NNVHAAAAIBAJ&dq=robeson+and+brown+inducted+in+hall&pg=4842%2C2952039|url-status=live}}; The number of letters varies between 12 and 15 based on author; {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=22}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=73}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=34–35}}</ref> His football playing as [[End (gridiron football)|end]]<ref>{{cite news|first=Burris|last=Jenkins|title=Four Coaches – O'Neill of Columbia, Sanderson of Rutgers, Gargan of Fordham, and Thorp of N.Y.U. – Worrying About Outcome of Impending Battles|date=September 28, 1922|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030193/1922-09-28/ed-1/seq-25/|work=The Evening World|page=24|access-date=December 10, 2011|archive-date=May 25, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525172514/http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030193/1922-09-28/ed-1/seq-25/|url-status=live}}</ref> won him first-team All-American selection, in both his junior and senior years. [[Walter Camp]] considered him the greatest end ever.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=66}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=22–23}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=30, 35}}</ref> Academically, he was accepted into [[Phi Beta Kappa]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbk.org/infoview/PBK_InfoView.aspx?t=&id=59|title=Who Belongs to Phi Beta Kappa?|publisher=The Phi Beta Kappa Society|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103230618/http://www.pbk.org/infoview/PBK_InfoView.aspx?t=&id=59|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 3, 2012|access-date=October 13, 2009}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=94}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=74}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=24}}</ref> and [[Cap and Skull]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=74}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=26}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=94}}</ref> His classmates recognized him<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=94–95}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=30}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=75–76}}, {{harvnb|Harris|1998|p=47}}</ref> by electing him class valedictorian.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=26}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=75}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=94}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=36}}</ref> ''[[The Daily Targum]]'' published a poem featuring his achievements.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Paul Robeson: Remaking A Fallen Hero|magazine=Sports Illustrated|date=March 27, 1972|first=Jerry|last=Kirshenbaum|volume=36|issue=13|pages=75–77|url=https://www.si.com/vault/1972/03/27/576460/paul-robeson-remaking-a-fallen-hero|access-date=March 10, 2018|archive-date=March 10, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310200738/https://www.si.com/vault/1972/03/27/576460/paul-robeson-remaking-a-fallen-hero|url-status=live}}</ref> In his valedictory speech, he exhorted his classmates to work for equality for all Americans. At Rutgers, Robeson also gained a reputation for his singing, having a deep rich voice which some saw as bass with a high range, others as baritone with low notes. Throughout his career, Robeson was classified as a bass-baritone.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|1919|pages=570–571}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=76}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=26–27}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=95}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=36–39}}</ref>

===1919–1923: Columbia Law School and marriage===
Robeson entered New York University School of Law in fall 1919.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=43}}; cf. Boyle and Bunie; 78–82, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=107}}</ref> To support himself, he became an assistant football coach at [[Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)|Lincoln University]],<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=34}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=82}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=44}}, {{harvnb|Carroll|1998|pp=140–141}}</ref> where he joined the [[Alpha Phi Alpha]] fraternity.<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=111}}; cf. {{harvnb|Gilliam|1978|p=25}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=53}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=41}}</ref> However, Robeson felt uncomfortable at NYU{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=82}} and moved to [[Harlem]] and transferred to Columbia Law School in February 1920.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=43–44}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=82}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=107–108}}</ref> Already known in the black community for his singing,<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=143}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=45}}</ref> he was selected to perform at the dedication of the [[Harlem YWCA]].<ref>{{harvnb|Weisenfeld|1997|pp=161–162}}; cf. {{harvnb|Seton|1958|p= 2}}</ref>

Robeson began dating [[Eslanda Goode Robeson|Eslanda "Essie" Goode]]<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=34–35, 37–38}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=87–89}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=46–48}}</ref> and after her coaxing,{{sfn|Duberman|1989|p=43}} he made his theatrical debut as Simon in [[Ridgely Torrence]]'s ''[[Simon of Cyrene|Simon the Cyrenian]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Peterson|1997|p=93}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=48–49}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=89, 104}}, {{cite news |title=Who's Who |id={{ProQuest|103384313}} |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1924/05/11/archives/whos-who.html |work=The New York Times |date=May 11, 1924 |access-date=October 22, 2023 |archive-date=November 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106204105/https://www.nytimes.com/1924/05/11/archives/whos-who.html |url-status=live }}</ref> After a year of courtship, they were married in August 1921.<ref>{{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=50–52}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=39–41}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=88–89, 94}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=119}}</ref>

Robeson was recruited by Fritz Pollard to play for the NFL's [[Akron Pros]] while he continued his law studies.<ref>{{harvnb|Levy|2003|p=30}}; cf. [http://www.profootballresearchers.org/Coffin_Corner/04-12-119.pdf Akron Pros 1920 by Bob Carrol] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311103636/http://www.profootballresearchers.org/Coffin_Corner/04-12-119.pdf|date=March 11, 2012}}, {{harvnb|Carroll|1998|pp=147–148}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=53}}</ref> In the spring of 1922, Robeson postponed school{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=104–105}} to portray Jim in [[Mary Hoyt Wiborg]]'s play ''[[Taboo (1922 play)|Taboo]]''.<ref>{{cite news|first=Charles|last=Darnton|title='Taboo' Casts Voodoo Spell|date=April 5, 1922|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030193/1922-04-05/ed-1/seq-24/|work=[[The Evening World]]|page=24|access-date=November 9, 2011|archive-date=May 25, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525172509/http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030193/1922-04-05/ed-1/seq-24/|url-status=live}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=100–105}}, [http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1922-04-05/ed-1/seq-10/;words=Paul+Robeson?date1=1836&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1922&proxtext=paul+robeson&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=2&index=1 Review of ''Taboo''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728044553/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1922-04-05/ed-1/seq-10/?date1=1836&index=1&date2=1922&searchType=basic&state=&rows=20&proxtext=paul+robeson&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=2 |date=July 28, 2020 }}{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|p=43}}</ref> He then sang in the chorus of an [[Off-Broadway]] production of ''[[Shuffle Along]]''<ref>{{harvnb|Wintz|2007|pp=6–8}}; cf. {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=44–45}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=57–59}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=98–100}}</ref> before he joined ''Taboo'' in Britain.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=44–45}}; cf. {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=120}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=57–59}}, {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=100–101}}</ref> The play was adapted by [[Mrs Patrick Campbell]] to highlight his singing.<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=105–107}}; cf. {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=120}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=47–48, 50}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=59, 63–64}}</ref> After the play's run ended, he befriended [[Lawrence Benjamin Brown]],<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|1997|pp=120–121}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=105–106}}</ref> a classically trained musician,{{sfn|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=139}} before returning to Columbia while playing for the NFL's [[Milwaukee Badgers]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=108–109}}; cf. {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|pp=68–69}}, {{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=34, 51}}, {{harvnb|Carroll|1998|pp=151–152}}</ref> He ended his football career after the 1922 season,<ref>{{harvnb|Levy|2003|pp=31–32}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|p=111}}</ref> and graduated from Columbia Law School in 1923.<ref>{{harvnb|Duberman|1989|pp=54–55}}; cf. {{harvnb|Boyle|Bunie|2005|pp=111–113}}, {{harvnb|Robeson|2001|p=71}}, {{harvnb|Brown|1997|p=122}}</ref>