Editing Peacekeeping (section)

==Definitions and types of peacekeeping operations==

=== United Nations peacekeeping missions ===
{{See also|United Nations peacekeeping}}

====Chapter VI and Chapter VII mission types====
There is a range of various types of operations encompassed in peacekeeping. In Page Fortna's book ''Does Peacekeeping Work?'', for instance, she distinguishes four different types of peacekeeping operations.<ref name="Fortna 2008 6–7">{{Cite book|title=Does Peacekeeping Work?: Shaping Belligerents' Choices after Civil War|last=Fortna|first=Page|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|pages=Chapter 7}}</ref> Importantly, these types of missions and how they are conducted are heavily influenced by the mandate in which they are authorized. Three of Fortna's four types are consent-based missions, i.e., so-called "[[Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter|Chapter VI]]" missions, with the fourth being a "[[Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter|Chapter VII]]" Mission. 
Chapter VI missions are consent-based; therefore they require the consent of the belligerent factions involved in order to operate. Should they lose that consent, Peacekeepers would be compelled to withdraw. Chapter VII missions, by contrast, do not require consent, though they may have it. If consent is lost at any point, Chapter VII missions would not be required to withdraw.
# ''Observation Missions'' which consist of small contingents of military or civilian observers tasked with monitoring cease-fires, troop withdrawals, or other conditions outlined in a ceasefire agreement. They are typically unarmed and are primarily tasked with observing and reporting on what is taking place. Thus, they do not possess the capability or mandate to intervene should either side renege on the agreement. Examples of observation missions include [[United Nations Angola Verification Mission II|UNAVEM II]] in [[Angola]] in 1991 and [[United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara|MINURSO]] in the [[Western Sahara]].
# ''Interpositional Missions'', also known as traditional peacekeeping, are larger contingents of lightly armed troops meant to serve as a buffer between belligerent factions in the aftermath of a conflict. Thus, they serve as a buffer zone between the two sides and can monitor and report on the compliance of either side with regard to parameters established in a given ceasefire agreement. Examples include [[United Nations Angola Verification Mission III|UNAVEM III]] in Angola in 1994, and [[MINUGUA]] in [[Guatemala]] in 1996.
# ''Multidimensional missions'' are carried out by military and [[United Nations Police|police]] personnel in which they attempt to implement robust and comprehensive settlements. Not only do they act as observers or in an interpositional role, but they also participate in more multidimensional tasks—such as electoral supervision, police and security forces reform, institution building, economic development, and more. Examples include [[United Nations Transition Assistance Group|UNTAG]] in [[Namibia]], [[ONUSAL]] in [[El Salvador]], and [[United Nations Operation in Mozambique|ONUMOZ]] in [[Mozambique]].
# ''[[Peace enforcement]] Missions'' are Chapter VII missions and unlike the previous Chapter VI missions, they do not require the consent of the belligerent parties. These are multidimensional operations comprising both civilian and military personnel. The military force is substantial in size and fairly well-equipped by UN Peacekeeping standards. They are mandated to use force for purposes beyond just self-defence. Examples include [[Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group|ECOMOG]] and [[United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone|UNAMSIL]] in [[West Africa]] and [[Sierra Leone]] in 1999, as well as the [[NATO]] operations in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]—[[Implementation Force|IFOR]] and [[SFOR]].<ref name="Fortna 2008 6–7"/>

==== UN missions during and after the Cold War ====

During the [[Cold War]], peacekeeping was primarily interpositional in nature—thus being referred to as traditional peacekeeping. UN Peacekeepers were deployed in the aftermath of interstate conflict in order to serve as a buffer between belligerent factions and ensure compliance with the terms of an established peace agreement. Missions were consent-based, and more often than not observers were unarmed—such was the case with [[United Nations Truce Supervision Organization|UNTSO]] in the [[Middle East]] and [[UN mediation of Kashmir|UNCIP]] in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Others were armed—such as [[United Nations Emergency Force|UNEF-I]], established during the [[Suez Crisis]]. They were largely successful in this role.

In the [[Post–Cold War era|post-Cold War]] era, the United Nations has taken on a more nuanced, multidimensional approach to Peacekeeping. In 1992, in the aftermath of the Cold War, then [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] put together a report detailing his ambitious concepts for the United Nations and Peacekeeping at large. The report, titled ''[[An Agenda for Peace]]'', described a multi-faceted and interconnected set of measures he hoped would lead to effective use of the UN in its role in post-Cold War international politics. This included the use of preventative diplomacy, peace-enforcement, peace-making, peace-keeping and post-conflict reconstruction.

==== Broader aims of UN missions ====

In ''The UN Record on Peacekeeping Operations'', [[Michael W. Doyle|Michael Doyle]] and Nicolas Sambanis summarise Boutros Boutros' report as preventative diplomacy, confidence-building measures such as fact-finding missions, observer mandates, and the potential deployment of UN mandated forces as a preventative measure in order to diminish the potential for violence or the danger of violence occurring and thus increasing the prospect for lasting peace. Their definitions are as follows:
# ''Peace-enforcement'', meant to act with or without the consent of the belligerents in order to ensure any treaty or cease-fire mandated by the United Nations Security Council is maintained. This is done primarily under the auspices of Chapter VII of the UN Charter and the forces are generally heavily armed as opposed to the unarmed, or lightly-armed personnel frequently deployed as observers.
# ''Peace-making'', meant to compel belligerents to seek a peaceful settlement for their differences via mediation and other forms of negotiation provided by the UN under the auspices of Chapter VI of the [[United Nations Charter|UN Charter]].
# ''Peace-keeping'', deployment of a lightly-armed United Nations presence in the field with the consent of the belligerents involved in order to build confidence and monitor any agreements between concerned parties. Additionally, diplomats would continue to work toward comprehensive and lasting peace, or for the implementation of an agreed-upon peace.
# ''Post-Conflict Reconstruction,'' intended to develop economic and social cooperation meant to mend relations between the belligerents. Social, political, and economic infrastructure would ideally prevent potential violence and conflict in the future and help to contribute to lasting and robust peace.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Doyle|first1=Michael W.|last2=Sambanis|first2=Nicholas|date=2007|title=The UN Record On Peacekeeping Operations|journal=International Journal|volume=63|issue=3}}</ref>

Peacekeeping also means working together with NGOs with a view to protecting cultural property. The [[UN peacekeeping]] commitment to the protection of [[cultural heritage]] dates back to 2012 and is being expanded. An outstanding mission was the deployment of the UN peace mission [[UNIFIL]] together with [[Blue Shield International]] in 2019 to protect the [[UNESCO World Heritage]] in Lebanon. Basically, the protection of cultural property (carried out by military and civil experts in cooperation with local people) forms the stable basis for the future peaceful and economic development of a city, region or country in many conflict areas. Whereby there is also a connection between cultural user disruption and the cause of flight, as President of Blue Shield International [[Karl von Habsburg]] explained during the United Nations peacekeeping and [[UNESCO]] mission in Lebanon in April 2019: "Cultural assets are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often have no prospects anymore and subsequently flee from their homeland".<ref>{{cite web|title=Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon|date=April 28, 2019 |url=https://www.krone.at/1911689|language=de}}</ref><ref>Jyot Hosagrahar: ''Culture: at the heart of SDGs.'' UNESCO-Kurier, April-Juni 2017.</ref><ref>Rick Szostak: ''The Causes of Economic Growth: Interdisciplinary Perspectives.'' Springer Science & Business Media, 2009, {{ISBN|9783540922827}}.</ref><ref>[https://www.bundesheer.at/cms/artikel.php?ID=10118 "Blue Helmet Forum 2019 - Protection of Cultural Heritage in Peace Operations", Austrian Armed Forces]</ref><ref>[https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017nian-di-3qi/historic-resolution-protect-cultural-heritage A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage, The UNESCO Courier]</ref><ref>[https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/action-plan-to-preserve-heritage-sites-during-conflict Action plan to preserve heritage sites during conflict - United Nations Peacekeeping, 12 April 2019.]</ref><ref>''UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue Shield International General Assembly.'' UNESCO, September 13, 2017.</ref>

=== Non-United Nations peacekeeping ===
{{See also|NATO peacekeeping}}
[[File:En-MFO1.JPG|thumb|right|Canadian [[UH-1N Twin Huey|CH135 Twin Hueys]] assigned to the [[Multinational Force and Observers]] non-UN peacekeeping force, at [[El Gorah]], [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]], [[Egypt]], 1989.]]
[[File:75Parad 04.jpg|thumb|Members of the [[Azerbaijani peacekeeping forces]] in full combat uniform during the [[2020 Moscow Victory Day Parade]].]] 
Not all international peacekeeping forces have been directly controlled by the United Nations. In 1981, an agreement between Israel and Egypt formed the [[Multinational Force and Observers]], which continues to monitor the [[Sinai Peninsula]].<ref name="10TAGpgA-1">10 Tactical Air Group: ''Canadian Contingent Multinational Force and Observers Handbook'' (unclassified), page A-1. DND, Ottawa, 1986.</ref>

The [[African Union]] (AU) is working on building an African Peace and Security Architecture that fulfils the mandate to enforce peace and security on the continent. In cases of [[genocide]] or other serious human rights violations, an AU-mission could be launched even against the wishes of the government of the country concerned, as long as it is approved by the AU General Assembly. The establishment of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) which includes the African Standby Force (ASF) is planned earliest for 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/african-peace-and-security-architecture-already-proving-useful-even-though-it-still-work |title=The African Peace and Security Architecture is already proving useful even though it is still work in progress |publisher=dandc.eu |date=August 27, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2013}}</ref> On the regional level, the [[Economic Community of West African States]] has initiated several peacekeeping missions in some of its member states, and it has been described as "Africa's most advanced regional peace and security mechanism".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Oni|first1=Cyril I.|date=2009|journal=African Security|volume=2|pages=119–135|doi=10.1080/19362200903361945|title=Economic Community of West African States on the Ground: Comparing Peacekeeping in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea Bissau, and Côte D'Ivoire|issue=2–3|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping (UCP) are civilian personnel that carry out non-violent, non-interventionist and impartial set of tactics in order to protect civilians in conflict zones from violence in addition to supporting additional efforts to build a lasting peace. While the term UCP is not entirely ubiquitous among non-governmental agencies (NGOs) in the field: many utilize similar techniques and desire shared outcomes for peace; such as accompaniment, presence, rumour control, community security meetings, the securing of safe passage, and monitoring.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rachel|first1=Julian|last2=Schweitzer|first2=Christine|date=2015|title=The Origins And Development of Unarmed Civilian Peacekeeping|url=http://eprints.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/1764/5/Origins%20and%20Development%20of%20UCP%20Submitted.pdf|journal=Peace Review|volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1080/10402659.2015.1000181|s2cid=144911738}}</ref>