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==History== ===Origins=== {{Further|History of writing}} The earliest example of systematic writing is the [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] pictographic system found on clay tablets, which eventually developed around 3200 BC into a modified version called [[cuneiform]]<ref>Nickell, Joe. (2003) ''Pen, Ink & Evidence: A Study of Writing and Writing Materials for the Penman, Collector, and Document Detective''. New Castle: Oak Knoll Press. p. 115.</ref> which was impressed on wet clay with a sharpened reed.<ref>Tschichold, Jan. (1948) ''An Illustrated History of Writing and Lettering''. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 7.</ref> This form of writing eventually evolved into an ideographic system (where a sign represents an idea) and then to a syllabic system (where a sign represents a syllable).<ref>Fairbank, Alfred J. (1977). ''A Book of Scripts''. London: Faber. p. 9.</ref> Developing around the same time, the Egyptian system of [[hieroglyphics]] also began as a pictographic script and evolved into a system of syllabic writing. Two cursive scripts were eventually created, [[hieratic]], shortly after hieroglyphs were invented, and [[demotic (Egyptian)]] in the seventh century BC.<ref>Nickell, Joe (2003). ''Pen, Ink & Evidence: A Study of Writing and Writing Materials for the Penman, Collector, and Document Detective''. New Castle: Oak Knoll Press. p. 117.</ref> Scribes wrote these scripts usually on [[papyrus]], with ink on a reed pen. The first known alphabetical system came from the [[Phoenicians]], who developed a vowel-less system of 22 letters around the eleventh century BC.<ref>Robinson, Andrew (2007). ''The Story of Writing''. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. 165.</ref> The Greeks eventually adapted the Phoenician alphabet around the eighth century BC. Adding vowels to the alphabet, dropping some consonants and altering the order, the [[Ancient Greeks]] developed a script which included only what we know of as capital Greek letters.<ref>Ullman, B. L. (1977). ''Ancient Writing and Its Influence''. Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. p. 31.</ref> The lowercase letters of [[Classical Greek]] were a later invention of the [[Middle Ages]]. The Phoenician alphabet also influenced the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]] scripts, which follow a vowel-less system. One Hebrew script was only used for religious literature and by a small community of Samaritans up until the sixth century BC. Aramaic was the official script of the Babylonian, Assyrian and Persian empires and 'Square Hebrew' (the script now used in Israel) developed from Aramaic around the third century AD.<ref>Robinson, Andrew (2007). ''The Story of Writing''. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. 171.</ref> === Handwriting based on Latin script === {{Further|Palaeography}} The Romans in Southern Italy eventually adopted the Greek alphabet as modified by the [[Etruscans]] to develop Latin writing.<ref name="Fairbank, Alfred J. 1977 pg 10">Fairbank, Alfred J. (1977). ''A Book of Scripts''. London: Faber. p. 10.</ref> Like the Greeks, the Romans employed stone, metal, clay, and papyrus as writing surfaces. Handwriting styles which were used to produce manuscripts included [[Roman square capitals|square capitals]], [[rustic capitals]], uncials, and [[Half uncial|half-uncials]].<ref name="Nickell, Joe 2003 pg 118">Nickell, Joe (2003). ''Pen, Ink & Evidence: A Study of Writing and Writing Materials for the Penman, Collector, and Document Detective''. New Castle: Oak Knoll Press. p. 118.</ref> Square capitals were employed for more-formal texts based on stone inscriptional letters, while rustic capitals freer, compressed, and efficient.<ref name="Fairbank, Alfred J. 1977 pg 10"/> [[Uncials]] were rounded capitals ([[majuscules]]) that originally were developed by the Greeks in the third century BC, but became popular in Latin manuscripts by the fourth century AD. [[Roman cursive]] or informal handwriting started out as a derivative of the capital letters, though the tendency to write quickly and efficiently made the letters less precise.<ref>Fairbank, 1977, p. 11.</ref> Half-uncials (minuscules) were lowercase letters, which eventually became the national hand of Ireland.<ref name="Nickell, Joe 2003 pg 118"/> Other combinations of half-uncial and cursive handwriting developed throughout Europe, including [[Visigothic script|Visigothic]], and [[Merovingian script|Merovingian]].<ref>Fairbank, 1977, p. 12.</ref> At the end of the eighth century, [[Charlemagne]] decreed that all writings in his empire were to be written in a standard handwriting, which came to be known as [[Carolingian minuscule]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Handwriting |url= http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1592&HistoryID=ab33>rack=pthc |agency=Historyworld.net |date=2010}}.</ref> [[Alcuin of York]] was commissioned by Charlemagne to create this new handwriting, which he did in collaboration with other scribes and based on the tradition of other Roman handwriting.<ref>Nickell, 2003, p. 119.</ref> Carolingian minuscule was used to produce many of the manuscripts from monasteries until the eleventh century and most lower-case letters of today's European scripts derive from it.<ref>Fairbank, 1977, p. 13.</ref> Gothic or black-letter script, evolved from Carolingian, became the dominant handwriting from the twelfth century until the Italian Renaissance (1400–1600 AD). This script was not as clear as the Carolingian, but instead was narrower, darker, and denser. Because of this, the dot above the ''i'' was added in order to differentiate it from the similar pen strokes of the ''n'', ''m'', and ''u''. Also, the letter ''u'' was created as separate from the ''v'', which had previously been used for both sounds.<ref name="vletter.com">{{Cite web |url=http://www.vletter.com/handwriting.htm |title=History of Handwriting - Handwriting Development, History of Alphabet - vLetter.com |access-date=27 April 2010 |archive-date=17 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100417131842/http://www.vletter.com/handwriting.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Part of the reason for such compact handwriting was to save space, since [[parchment]] was expensive.<ref name="handwrite.net">{{cite book |author= Mary B. Woods, Michael Woods |title=Ancient Machine Technology: From Wheels to Forges |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a3hLQ6Ypo-AC&pg=PA78 |pages=78 |date=2011|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=9780761372660 }}</ref> Gothic script, being the writing style of scribes in Germany when [[Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg]] invented movable type, became the model for the first typeface. Another variation of Carolingian minuscule was created by the Italian humanists in the fifteenth century, called by them ''littera antiqua'' and now called [[humanist minuscule]].<ref>Nickell, 2003, p. 123.</ref> This was a combination of Roman capitals and the rounded version of Carolingian minuscule. A cursive form eventually developed, and it became increasingly slanted due to the quickness with which it could be written. This manuscript handwriting, called [[cursive humanistic]], became known as the typeface [[Italic type|Italic]] used throughout Europe.<ref>Ullman, B. L. (1977). ''Ancient Writing and Its Influence''. Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. p. 143.</ref> [[intaglio printing|Copperplate engraving]] influenced handwriting as it allowed penmanship copybooks to be more widely printed. Copybooks first appeared in Italy around the sixteenth century; the earliest writing manuals were published by [[Sigismondo Fanti]] and Ludovico degli Arrighi.<ref name="Nickell, Joe 2003 pg 131">Nickell, 2003, p. 131.</ref> Other manuals were produced by Dutch and French writing masters later in the century, including Pierre Hamon.<ref name="Nickell, Joe 2003 pg 131"/> However, copybooks only became commonplace in England with the invention of copperplate engraving. Engraving could better produce the flourishes in handwritten script, which helped penmanship masters to produce beautiful examples for students.<ref name="vletter.com"/> Some of these early penmanship manuals included those of [[Edward Cocker]], [[John Seddon (calligrapher)|John Seddon]], and John Ayer. By the eighteenth century, schools were established to teach penmanship techniques from master penmen, especially in England and the United States.<ref name="handwrite.net"/> Penmanship became part of the curriculum in American schools by the early 1900s, rather than just reserved for specialty schools teaching adults penmanship as a professional skill. Several different penmanship methods have been developed and published, including Spencerian, Getty-Dubay, Barchowsky Fluent Handwriting, Icelandic (Italic), Zaner-Bloser, and D’Nealian methods among others used in American education.<ref name="handwrite.net"/> [[File:Semi-cursive style Calligraphy of Chinese poem by Mo Ruzhong.jpg|thumbnail|Example of semi-cursive style Chinese calligraphy]] === Handwriting based on Chinese script === Writing systems developed in East Asia include [[Chinese character|Chinese]] and [[Japanese writing system|Japanese]] writing systems. Chinese characters represent whole morphemes rather than individual sounds, and consequently are visually far more complex than European scripts; in some cases their pictographic origins are still visible. The earliest form of Chinese was written on bones and shells (called [[Jiaguwen]]) in the fourteenth century BC. Other writing surfaces used during this time included bronze, stone, jade, pottery, and clay, which became more popular after the twelfth century BC.<ref>[[Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin]]. (1969). ''Written on Bamboo and Silk''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 180.</ref> Greater Seal script ([[Dazhuan]]) flourished during 1100 BC and 700 BC and appeared mainly in bronze vessels.<ref name="ancientscripts.com">{{Cite web |title=AncientScripts.com: Chinese |url=http://www.ancientscripts.com/chinese.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010714214335/http://www.ancientscripts.com/chinese.html |archive-date=14 July 2001 |website=AncientScripts.com}}</ref> Lesser Seal script ([[Xiaozhuan]]) is the precursor of modern complex Chinese script, which is more stylized than the Greater Seal.<ref name="ancientscripts.com"/> Chinese handwriting is considered an art, more so than illuminated manuscripts in Western culture. [[Calligraphy]] is widely practiced in China, which employs scripts such as [[Kaishu]] (standard), [[Xingshu]] (semi-cursive), and [[Caoshu]] (cursive).<ref>Robinson, Andrew. (2007) ''The Story of Writing''. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. 194.</ref> Chinese calligraphy is meant to represent the artistic personality in a way western calligraphy cannot, and therefore penmanship is valued higher than in any other nation.<ref>Tschichold, Jan. (1948) ''An Illustrated History of Writing and Lettering''. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 13.</ref> Standard Script ([[Kaishu]]) is main traditional script used today. Japanese writing evolved from Chinese script and Chinese characters, called [[kanji]], or ideograms, were adopted to represent Japanese words and grammar.<ref>Robinson, Andrew. (2007) ''The Story of Writing''. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. 199.</ref> Kanji were simplified to create two other scripts, called [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]]. Hiragana is the more widely used script in Japan today, while katakana, meant for formal documents originally, is used similarly to italics in alphabetic scripts.<ref>Robinson, Andrew. (2007) ''The Story of Writing''. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. p. 201.</ref>
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