Editing Persecution of Muslims (section)

==Medieval==

===Early Islam===
{{Main|Persecution of Muslims by Meccans}}
In the early days of Islam in [[Mecca]], the new Muslims were often subjected to abuse and persecution by the [[pagan]] Meccans (often called ''Mushrikin'': the unbelievers or [[polytheist]]s). Some were killed, such as [[Sumayya]], the seventh convert to Islam, who was allegedly tortured first by [[Amr ibn Hisham]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |volume=7 |pages=360–376 |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |last1=Buhl |first1=F. |title=Muḥammad |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |isbn=978-9004094192 |year=1993}}</ref> Even the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] was subjected to such abuse; while he was praying near the [[Kaaba]], [[Uqba ibn Abu Mu'ayt]] threw the [[entrail]]s of a sacrificed camel over him. Abu Lahab's wife [[Umm Jamil]] would regularly dump filth outside his door and placed thorns in the path to his house.<ref>{{cite web |title=From the Beginning of Revelation |url=http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MH_LM/from_the_beginning_of_revelation.htm |access-date=19 September 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109035218/http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MH_LM/from_the_beginning_of_revelation.htm |archive-date=9 November 2005}}</ref>

Accordingly, if free Muslims were attacked, slaves who converted were subjected to far worse. The master of the [[Ethiopia]]n [[Bilal ibn Rabah]] (who would become the first [[muezzin]]) would take him out into the desert in the boiling heat of midday and place a heavy rock on his chest, demanding that he forswear his religion and pray to the polytheists' gods and goddesses, until [[Abu Bakr]] bought him and freed him.<ref>Sodiq, Yushau. Insider's Guide to Islam. Bloomington, Indiana: Trafford, 2011. Print. {{ISBN|1466924160}} p. 23.</ref>

===Crusades===
{{Main|Crusades}}
The [[First Crusade]] was launched in 1095 by [[Pope Urban II]], with the stated goal of regaining control of the sacred city of [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Holy Land]] from the Muslims, who had captured them from the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] in 638. The [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid Caliph]], [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|Al Hakim of Cairo]], known as the "mad Caliph"<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOdpBdorm8wC&pg=PA245 |title=Keys to Jerusalem: Collected Essays |last=Murphy-O'Connor |first=Jerome |date=23 February 2012 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0199642021}}</ref> destroyed the  [[Constantine the Great|Constantinian-era]] [[Church of the Holy Sepulcher]] in 1009, as well as [[Fatimid desecration of Jerusalem|other Christian churches and shrines in the Holy Land]].

This event, in conjunction with the [[Great German Pilgrimage of 1064–65|killing of Germanic pilgrims]] who were travelling from Byzantium to Jerusalem, raised the anger of Europe, and inspired Pope Urban II to call on all Catholic rulers, [[knight]]s, and noblemen to recapture the Holy Land from Muslim rule.

In part, it was also a response to the [[Investiture Controversy]], which was the most significant [[separation of church and state (medieval)|conflict between secular and religious]] powers in [[medieval Europe]]. The controversy began as a dispute between the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] and the [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregorian Papacy]] and gave rise to the political concept of [[Christendom]] as a union of all peoples and sovereigns under the direction of the pope; as both sides tried to marshal public opinion in their favour, people became personally engaged in a dramatic religious controversy. Also of great significance in launching the crusade were the string of victories by the Seljuk Turks, which saw the end of Arab rule in Jerusalem.

[[File:Counquest of Jeusalem (1099).jpg|thumb|Capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders in 1099]]
On 7 May 1099 the Crusaders reached [[Jerusalem]], which had been recaptured from the [[Seljuks]] by the [[Fatimid]]s of Egypt only a year before. On 15 July, the Crusaders were able to end the siege by breaking down sections of the walls and entering the city. Over the course of that afternoon, evening, and next morning, the Crusaders killed almost every inhabitant of Jerusalem, Muslims and Jews alike. Although many Muslims sought shelter atop the [[Temple Mount]] inside the [[Qibli Mosque|Al-Aqsa Mosque]], the Crusaders spared few lives. According to the anonymous ''[[Gesta Francorum]]'', in what some believe to be one of the most valuable contemporary sources of the First Crusade, "...the slaughter was so great that our men waded in blood up to their ankles...."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/cde-jlem.asp#gesta2 |title=King John of England: Royal Licenses to Export and Import, 1205–1206 |website=Fordham.edu |access-date=9 February 2016}}</ref> (which is however rather a literary figure used multiple times in similar context than probable reality). According to Fulcher of Chartres: "Indeed, if you had been there you would have seen our feet coloured to our ankles with the blood of the slain. But what more shall I relate? None of them were left alive; neither women nor children were spared.".<ref>{{cite web |title=King John of England: Royal Licenses to Export and Import, 1205–1206 |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/cde-jlem.asp#fulcher1 |access-date=9 February 2016 |website=Fordham.edu}}</ref> [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee]] claimed the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple quarter]] for himself and offered protection to some of the Muslims there, but he was unable to prevent their deaths at the hands of his fellow Crusaders.

During the massacre  committed in Jerusalem during the First Crusade, it was reported that the Crusaders "[circled] the screaming, flame-tortured humanity singing 'Christ We Adore Thee!' with their Crusader crosses held high".<ref>Rausch, David (1990), ''Legacy of Hatred: Why Christians Must Not Forget the Holocaust'', Baker Pub Group, {{ISBN|0801077583}}, p. 27</ref> Muslims were indiscriminately killed, and Jews who had taken refuge in their synagogue were killed when it was burnt down by the Crusaders.

===Southern Italy===
{{Further|History of Islam in southern Italy|Emirate of Sicily|Muslim settlement of Lucera|Muslim conquest of Sicily}}

The island of [[Sicily]] was conquered by the [[Aghlabids]] in the 10th century after over a century of conflict, with the [[Byzantine Empire]] losing its final stronghold in 965.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archaeology.stanford.edu/MountPolizzo/handbookPDF/MPHandbook5.pdf |publisher=Archaeology.Stanford.edu |title=Brief history of Sicily |date=7 October 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609094555/http://archaeology.stanford.edu/MountPolizzo/handbookPDF/MPHandbook5.pdf |archive-date=9 June 2007}}</ref> The [[Italo-Norman|Normans]] conquered the last Arab Muslim stronghold by 1091.<ref>{{cite book |publisher=ABC-CLIO |title=Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History [4 Volumes]: 5,000 Years of Religious History |page=713 |date=15 January 2014}}</ref> Subsequently, just as Muslims had previously imposed the [[jizya]] tax on the non-Muslims of Sicily, the new rulers continued the practice and imposed the same tax now on the Muslims (locally spelled ''gisia''). Another tax on levied them for a time was the ''augustale''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Shlomo |last=Simonsohn |title=Between Scylla and Charybdis: The Jews in Sicily |publisher=Brill |page=163}}</ref> Muslim rebellion broke out during the reign of [[Tancred, King of Sicily|Tancred]] as [[King of Sicily]]. Lombard pogroms against Muslims started in the 1160s. Muslim and Christian communities in Sicily became increasingly geographically separated. The island's Muslim communities were mainly isolated beyond an internal frontier which divided the south-western half of the island from the Christian north-east. Sicilian Muslims were dependent on royal protection. When [[William II of Sicily|King William the Good]] died in 1189, this royal protection was lifted, and the door was opened for widespread attacks against the island's Muslims. Tolerance towards  Muslims ended with increasing Hohenstaufen control. Many oppressive measures, passed by [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], were introduced in order to please the Popes  to stop  Islam from being practised in [[Christendom]]: the result was in a rebellion of Sicily's Muslims. This triggered organized and systematic reprisals which marked the final chapter of Islam in Sicily. The rebellion abated, but direct papal pressure induced Frederick to mass transfer all his Muslim subjects deep into the Italian hinterland.<ref>{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Luscombe |first2=Jonathan |last2=Riley-Smith |title=The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 4, c. 1024 – c. 1198 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=470}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Philip |last1=Grierson |first2=Lucia |last2=Travaini |title=Medieval European Coinage: Volume 14, South Italy, Sicily, Sardinia: With a Catalogue of the Coins in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=184}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated2>A.Lowe: The Barrier and the bridge; p. 92.</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Pierre |last=Aubé |title=Roger Ii De Sicile – Un Normand En Méditerranée |publisher=Payot |year=2001}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}} In 1224, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] expelled all Muslims from the island transferring many to Lucera (''Lugêrah'', as it was known in Arabic) over the next two decades. In this controlled environment they could not challenge royal authority and they benefited the crown in taxes and military service. Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000, leading Lucera to be called ''Lucaera Saracenorum'' because it represented the last stronghold of Islamic presence in Italy. During peacetime, Muslims in Lucera were predominantly farmers. They grew [[durum]] wheat, [[barley]], [[legume]]s, grapes, and other fruits. Muslims also kept bees for [[honey]].<ref>Taylor, p. 99</ref> The [[Muslim settlement of Lucera]] was destroyed by [[Charles II of Naples]] with backing from the papacy. The Muslims were either massacred, forcibly converted, enslaved, or exiled. Their abandoned mosques were demolished, and churches were usually built in their place. The [[Lucera Cathedral]] was built on the site of a mosque which was destroyed. The mosque was the last one still functioning in [[medieval Italy]] by that time.<ref>{{cite book |author=Julie Anne Taylor |title=Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera |publisher=Lexington Books |page=208}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=David |last=Nicolle |title=European Medieval Tactics (2): New Infantry, New Weapons 1260–1500 |publisher=Bloomsbury |page=28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Norman |last=Dariel |title=The Arabs and the Medieval Europe |publisher=UCD Library |page=156}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Alex |last=Metcalfe |title=Muslims of Medieval Italy |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |page=294}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}} Some were exiled, with many finding asylum in [[Albania]] across the [[Adriatic Sea]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Ataullah Bogdan Kopanski |url=https://www.iiu.edu.my/deed/quran/albanian/Albchapt.htm |title=Islamization of Shqeptaret: The Clash of Religions in Medieval Albania |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125004644/http://www.iiu.edu.my/deed/quran/albanian/Albchapt.htm |archive-date=25 November 2009}}</ref><ref>Taylor, p. 187</ref> Islam was no longer a major presence in the island by the 14th century.

The Aghlabids also conquered the island of [[Malta]] at the same time during their invasion of Sicily.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Idris El Harier |first2=Ravane |last2=Mbaye |title=The Spread of Islam Throughout the World |publisher=UNESCO |page=441}}</ref> Per the [[Kitab al-Rawd al-Mitar|Al-Himyari]] the island was reduced to an uninhabited ruin due to the conquest. The place was later converted into a settlement by Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blouet |first1=Brian W. |title=The Story of Malta |date=2007 |publisher=Allied Publications |page=41}}</ref> The Normans conquered it at the same time as Sicily.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dennis Angelo Castillo |title=The Maltese Cross: A Strategic History of Malta |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |page=30}}</ref> The Normans however did not interfere in the matters of Muslims of the island and gave them a tributary status.<ref>{{cite book |first=Mario |last=Buhagiar |title=The late Medieval art and architecture of the Maltese islands |publisher=University of Michigan |page=41}}</ref> Their conquest however led to the [[Christianization]] and [[Latinization (historical)|Latinization]] of the island.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Joe |editor-last=Zammit-Ciantar |title=Symposia Melitensia 4 |publisher=University of Malta |page=150}}</ref> An annual fine on the Christian community for killing of a Muslim was also repealed in the 12th century, signifying the degradation of the protection given to the Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |first=Alex |last=Metcalfe |title=Muslims of Medieval Italy |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |page=285}}</ref> Most of the Maltese Muslims were deported by 1271.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dante and Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=238 |first=Jan M. |last=Ziolkowski}}</ref> All Maltese Muslims had converted to Christianity by the end of the 15th century and had to find ways to disguise their previous identities by Latinizing or adopting new surnames.<ref>{{cite book |title=Malta, Mediterranean Bridge |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |page=24 |first=Stefan |last=Goodwin}}</ref>

===Mongol invasions===
{{main|Mongol invasions and conquests}}
[[Genghis Khan]], and the later [[list of Yuan emperors|Yuan Emperors of China]] imposed restrictive decrees which forbade Islamic practices like [[halal]] butchering and forced Muslims to follow Mongol methods of butchering animals.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} As a result of these decrees, Muslims were forced to slaughter sheep in secret.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&q=yuan+dynasty+halal&pg=PA24 |title=China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement, and sects |first=Michael |last=Dillon |year=1999 |publisher=Curzon Press |location=Richmond |page=24 |isbn=978-0700710263 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> Genghis Khan referred to Muslims as "slaves", and he also commanded them to follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal one.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} [[Circumcision]] was also forbidden.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |title=The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims |author=Donald Daniel Leslie |year=1998 |page=12 |publisher=The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology |access-date=30 November 2010 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |archive-date=17 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&q=yuan+dynasty+halal&pg=PA230 |title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road |first=Johan |last=Elverskog |year=2010 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |edition=illustrated |page=228 |isbn=978-0812242379 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> Toward the end of [[Yuan dynasty|their rule]], the corruption of the Mongol court and the persecution of Muslims became so severe that Muslim generals joined [[Han Chinese]] in rebelling against the Mongols. The [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] founder Zhu Yuanzhang employed Muslim generals like [[Lan Yu (general)|Lan Yu]] who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities were named "kamsia", which, in [[Hokkien]] Chinese, means "thank you"; many Hui Muslims claim that their communities were named "kamsia" because the Han Chinese appreciated the important role which they had played in assisting them to overthrow the Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kkJwAAAAMAAJ&q=popular+belief+mongols |title=Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic |first=Dru C. |last=Gladney |year=1991 |publisher=Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |page=234 |edition=2, illustrated, reprint |isbn=978-0674594951 |access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref> The Muslims in the [[Semu]] class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the [[Ispah Rebellion]] but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.

{{Further|Battle of Baghdad (1258)|Mongol invasions of Syria}}
[[File:Baghdad old Abbasid Minaret.jpg|175px|right|thumb|Minaret of Baghdad's [[al-Khulafa Mosque]] which was destroyed by the [[Mongol]] ruler [[Hulegu Khan|Hulagu]] during the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|1258 siege]]]]
Following the brutal [[Mongol invasion of Central Asia]] under [[Genghis Khan]], and the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|sack of Baghdad]] which occurred in 1258, the [[Mongol Empire]]'s rule extended across most Muslim lands in [[Asia]]. The [[Abbasid caliphate]] was destroyed and the [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]] suffered much devastation, especially in [[Mesopotamia]], and [[Tengriism]] and Buddhism replaced it as the official religions of the empire.<ref name="Brown">Brown, Daniel W. (2003), ''New Introduction to Islam'', Blackwell Publishing, pp. 185–87, {{ISBN|0631216049}}</ref> However, the Mongols attacked people for goods and riches, not because of their religion. Later, many Mongol khans and rulers such as those of the [[Oljeitu]], the [[Ilkhanid]], and the [[Golden Horde]] became Muslims along with their subjects. The Mongols made no real effort to replace Islam with any other religion, they just had the desire to plunder goods from anyone who did not submit to their rule, which was characteristic of Mongol warfare.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} During the [[Yuan Dynasty]] which the Mongols founded in China, Muslim scientists were highly regarded and Muslim beliefs were also [[Islam during the Yuan dynasty|respected]]. Regarding the Mongol attacks, the Muslim historian, [[Ali ibn al-Athir|ibn al-Athir]] lamented:

<blockquote>I shrank from giving a recital of these events on the account of their magnitude and abhorrence. Even now I come reluctant to the task, for who would deem it a light thing to sing the death song of Islam and the Muslims or find it easy to tell this tale? O that my mother had not given me birth!<ref>Arnold, Thomas Walker, ''The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith'', p. 186</ref></blockquote>

The detailed atrocities during the sack of Baghdad include:{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}
* The [[House of Wisdom|Grand Library of Baghdad]], which contained countless precious historical documents and books on subjects that ranged from [[medicine]] to [[astronomy]], was destroyed. Survivors said that the waters of the [[Tigris]] ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books that were flung into the river.
* Citizens attempted to flee, but they were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed them with abandon. Martin Sicker writes that close to 90,000 people may have died (Sicker 2000, p.&nbsp;111){{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}. Other estimates go much higher. [[Wassaf]] claims that the loss of life was several hundred thousand. Ian Frazier of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' claims that estimates of the death toll range from 200,000 to one million.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Ian |last=Frazier |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/invaders-3 |title=Annals of history: Invaders: Destroying Baghdad |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=25 April 2005 |page=4}}</ref>
* The Mongols looted and destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Grand buildings which had taken generations to build were burned to the ground.
* The [[al-Musta'sim|caliph]] was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury was plundered. According to most accounts, the caliph was killed by trampling. The Mongols rolled the caliph up in a rug, and rode their horses over him, because they believed that the earth would be offended if it were ever touched by royal blood. All but one of his sons were killed, and the sole surviving son was sent to Mongolia.
* [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]] had to move his camp upwind from the city, due to the stench of decay that emanated from its ruins.

At the intervention of Hulagu's [[Nestorianism|Nestorian Christian]] wife, [[Dokuz Khatun]], the city's Christian inhabitants were spared.<ref>Maalouf, 243</ref><ref>Runciman, 306</ref> Hulagu offered the royal palace to the Nestorian [[Catholicos]] [[Mar Makikha]], and he also ordered that a cathedral should be built for him.<ref>[[Richard Foltz]], ''Religions of the Silk Road'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, p. 123</ref> Ultimately, the seventh ruler of the Ilkhanate, [[Mahmud Ghazan]], converted from [[Buddhism]] to Islam, and thus began the gradual decline of Tengrism and Buddhism in the region and its replacement by the renaissance of Islam. Later, three of the four principal Mongol khanates embraced Islam.<ref>''Encyclopedia Americana'', Grolier Incorporated, p. 680</ref>

Muslim and Jewish paternal cousin marriage was banned by the Yuan dynasty which also forced Muslims to obey Mongol customs like levirate marriage.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Donald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eCMVAAAAIAAJ&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA13 |title=The Survival of the Chinese Jews: The Jewish Community of Kaifeng |date=1972 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9004034137 |edition=illustrated |volume=10 van Tʾoung pao. Archives concernant l'histoire, les langues, la ǵeographie, l'ethnographie et les arts de l'Asie orientale. Monographie |location= |page=13 |quote=In the early years of the Mongols in China, Qubilai actually gave “ repeated orders that the levirate shall be obligatory for ... In addition, Muslims and Jews, specifically mentioned, are forbidden to marry paternal cousins .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Atwood |first=Christopher P. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVRjDAAAQBAJ&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA301 |title=The Middle Kingdom and the Dharma Wheel: Aspects of the Relationship between the Buddhist Saṃgha and the State in Chinese History |date=2016 |publisher=BRILL |others=Contributor Thomas Jülch |isbn=978-9004322585 |series=Sinica Leidensia |location= |page=301 |chapter=Buddhists as Natives: Changing Positions in the Religious Ecology of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty |quote=unclean practices by Indian Buddhist polemics against Islam in the Kālacakra Tantra.54 Tao Zongyi 陶宗儀, in his Nancun chuogenglu ... again whether Musulman or Juqud (Muslim or Jewish), from practicing patrilateral cousin marriage.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCJNQPszu5sC&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA29 |first=Donald Daniel |last=Leslie |title=Youtai – Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China |date=2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3631575338 |editor1-last=Kupfer |editor1-first=Peter|volume=47|author-link= |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=29 |quote=Confucianism bans the marriage of paternal cousins, and even of persons of the same surname . ... I am not sure whether this prohibition could refer to Muslims or to Jews . 2.1.1 . Terms for Jews It is ... 22, 67, “ Mongols ”, p .}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ICGMDgAAQBAJ&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA523 |title=The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion |date=2017 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300125337 |edition=unabridged |location= |page=523 |quote=Commanders: Tödökech, Hülegü's daughter, married first to Tenggiz Küregen of the Oyirat tribe, was later the wife ... 969 (DzhT, III, 14; CC, 337, omitting Taghai's name), her second husband is called the cousin of her first. |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Xu |first1=Xin | author1-link = Xu Xin (Judaic scholar) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GAAWkYBNu5sC&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA144 |title=The Jews of Kaifeng, China: History, Culture, and Religion |date=2003 |publisher= KTAV Publishing House|isbn=0881257915 |location= |page=144 |quote=Because both Jews and Muslims were called hui hui in the past, scholars unfamiliar with the term's origin mistakenly ... such as circumcision, ritual slaughter, and marriage between paternal cousins.38 RELATIONS WITH THE JESUITS AND ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Leslie |first2=Roman|last2= Malek |first1=Donald Daniel |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tj0rDwAAQBAJ&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA50 |title=From Kaifeng to Shanghai: Jews in China |date=2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1351566292 |location= |page=50 |quote=In the Mongol Yuan period (1279-1368), Chinese historical sources mention Jews for the first time, recording that Jews and Muslims were forbidden to circumcise, slaughter ritually for food, or marry paternal cousins. |author-link= |chapter=Integration, Assimilation, and Survival of Minorities in China: The Case of the Kaifeng Jews}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Naiman |first=Nily |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYb-mYaWpMC&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA241 |title=Mongolia |date=2011 |publisher=Chipmunkapublishing ltd |isbn=978-1847476227 |location= |page=241 |quote=Cousin Bella is arriving tomorrow for Nayama's wedding, which will turn Arugul into a fire breathing dragon. ... We are not half-breeds we are multi-breeds, Jewish Muslim Buddhist Chinese Russians and god knows what else, a cocktail of ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bowering |first1=Gerhard |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA168 |title= The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought |last2=Crone |first2=Patricia |last3=Kadi |first3=Wadad |last4=Mirza |first4=Mahan |last5=Stewart |first5=Devin J. |last6=Zaman |first6=Muhammad Qasim |date=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |others=Contributors Richard Bulliet, David Cook, Roxanne L. Euben, Khaled Fahmy, Frank Griffel, Bernard Haykel, Robert W. Hefner, Timur Kuran, Jane McAuliffe, Ebrahim Moosa |isbn=978-0691134840 |edition=illustrated |location= |page=168 |chapter=family |quote=The Prophet, exceptionally, was not paired with one of the anṣār but with his cousin 'Ali. ... endogamy became highly preferred, especially for females, and Islamic law confirms that a Muslim man may marry a Jewish or Christian woman, ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Leslie |first=Donald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGgYAQAAIAAJ&q=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims |title=Jews and Judaism in Traditional China: A Comprehensive Bibliography |date=1998 |publisher=Monumenta Serica Institute |isbn=3805004184 |edition=illustrated |volume=44 of Institut Monumenta Serica Sankt Augustin: Monumenta serica monograph series |location= |pages=41, 15 |quote=Yuan (Mongol) Sources The Yuanshi (YS, History of the Yuan Dynasty) and Yuandianzhang (YDZ, Laws and Statutes of the ... They also forbade marriage of paternal cousins by Jews and Muslims (1340) (and also of 'father's younger ... |author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blanc |first1=Charles Le |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2-k571kpOwC&dq=mongol+cousin+marriage+jews+muslims&pg=PA183 |title=Chinese Ideas About Nature and Society: Studies in Honour of Derk Bodde |last2=Blader |first2=Susan |date=1987 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |isbn=962209189X |location= |page=183 |quote=forbade 'incestuous' marriages:23 'As of 1340, Ta—shih-man [Muslim mullahs], Hui-hui [other Muslims], and Jews will be prohibited from marrying paternal cousins.' 'In c.1340, foreigners are prohibited from marrying their father's ... |author-link=}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=May 2023}}

===Iberian Peninsula===
{{Main|Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain|Expulsion of the Moriscos|Spanish Inquisition|Islam in Spain}}
{{See also|Reconquista|Morisco rebellions in Granada}}
[[File:Itin mertola.jpg|right|thumb|Old Mosque in [[Mértola]], Portugal. Converted into a church.]]
[[File:Image of Moor (Muslim) Being Trampled by Conquistadors Horse - Museo Nacional del Virreinato - Tepotzotlan - Mexico.jpg|thumb|A figure of a Moor being trampled by a [[conquistador]]'s horse at the [[Museo Nacional del Virreinato|National Museum of the Viceroyalty]] in [[Tepotzotlan]]]]
Arabs relying largely on [[Berber people|Berbers]] [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|conquered the Iberian Peninsula starting in 711]], subduing the whole [[Visigothic Kingdom]] by 725. The triumphant [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] got conditional capitulations probably in most of the towns, so that they could get a compromise with the native population. This was not always so. For example, Mérida, Cordova, Toledo, or Narbonne were conquered by storm or after laying siege on them. The arrangement reached with the locals was based on respecting the laws and traditions used in each place, so that the ''Goths'' (a legal concept, not an ethnic one, i.e. the communities ruled by the ''[[Forum Iudicum]]'') continued to be ruled on new conditions by their own tribunals and laws.<ref>{{cite book |author=Collins, Roger |year=1995 |title=The Arab Conquest of Spain 710–797 |publisher=Blackwell |location=Oxford, UK / Cambridge, US |isbn=978-0631194057 |pages=39–40}}</ref> The Gothic Church remained in place and collaborated with the new masters. [[Al-Andalus]] or Muslim ruled Iberian peninsula, was conquered by northern Christian kingdoms in 1492, as a result of their expansion taking place especially after the definite collapse of the [[Caliphate of Cordova]] in 1031.

The coming of the Crusades (starting with the [[War of Barbastro|massacre of Barbastro]]) and similarly entrenched positions on the northern African [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]], who took over al-Andalus as of 1086, added to the difficult coexistence between communities, including Muslims in Christian ruled territory, or the [[Mozarabic rite]] Christians (quite different from those of the northern kingdoms), and further minority groups. The Almohads, a fanatic north African sect who later occupied al-Andalus, were the only Iberian Muslim rulers to demand conversion, exile, or death from the Christians and Jews.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fierro |first1=Maribel |title=Conversion, ancestry, and universal religion: the case of the Almohads in the Islamic West (sixth/twelfth–seventh/thirteenth centuries) |journal=Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies |date=2010 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=155–173 |doi=10.1080/17546559.2010.495289 |s2cid=159552569 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17546559.2010.495289|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[File:Embarco moriscos en el Grao de valencia.jpg|thumb|[[Expulsion of the Moriscos]] from Valencia]]
During the expansion south of the northern Christian kingdoms, depending on the local capitulations, local Muslims were allowed to remain ([[Mudéjar]]s) with extreme restrictions, while some were peacefully converted to the Christian faith. After the [[conquest of Granada]], all the Spanish Muslims were under Christian rule. The new acquired population spoke Arabic or [[Mozarabic language|Mozarabic]], and the campaigns to convert them were unsuccessful. Legislation was gradually introduced to remove Islam, culminating with the Muslims being forced to convert to Catholicism by the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. They were known as [[Morisco]]s and considered [[New Christian]]s. Further laws were introduced, as on 25 May 1566, stipulating that they "had to abandon the use of Arabic, change their costumes, that their doors must remain open every Friday, and other feast days, and that their baths, public and private, to be torn down."<ref>Rodrigo de Zayas, ''Les Morisques  et le racisme d'état'' (La Différence, 1992) p. 230</ref> The reason doors were to be left open so as to determine whether they secretly observed any Islamic festivals.<ref>T.B. Irving: Dates, Names and Places; p. 85</ref> King [[Philip II of Spain]] ordered the destruction of all public baths on the grounds of them being relics of infidelity, notorious for their use by Muslims performing their purification rites.<ref>S. Lane Poole: The Moors; pp. 135–36</ref><ref>Marmol Carvajal: Rebellion; pp. 161–62</ref> The possession of books or papers in Arabic was near concrete proof of disobedience with severe reprisals and penalties.<ref>H.C. Lea: The Moriscos of Spain; p. 131</ref> On 1 January 1568, Christian priests were ordered to take all Morisco children between the ages of three and fifteen, and place them in schools, where they were forced to learn Castillian and Christian doctrine.<ref>H. C. Lea: A History of the Inquisition; vol 3; p. 336</ref> All these laws and measures required force to be implemented, and from much earlier.

Between 1609 and 1614 the Moriscos were expelled from Spain.<ref>L.P. Harvey. ''Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614''. University Of Chicago Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-0226319636}}.</ref> They were to depart 'under the pain of death and confiscation, without trial or sentence ... to take with them no money, bullion, jewels, or bills of exchange ... just what they could carry.'<ref>H.C. Lea: The Moriscos of Spain; p. 345</ref>

===Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth===
{{Main|Lipka Tatars|Grand Duchy of Lithuania}}
{{See also|Lipka Rebellion}}
The [[Lipka Tatars]], also known as Polish Tatars or Lithuanian Tatars, were a community of Tatar Muslims who migrated into the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and became [[Polonized]].

The [[Counter-Reformation]] of the [[Catholic Church]] in the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] led to persecution of Muslims, [[Jews in Poland|Jews]], and [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox Christians]]. The ways the Muslims were persecuted included banning the repair of old mosques and preventing new ones from being constructed, banning [[serfdom]] of Christians under Muslims, banning marriage of Christian females to Muslims, putting limitations on property ownership among Tatars and the [[Polish–Ottoman Wars]] fed into the discriminatory atmosphere against them and led to anti-Islamic writings and attacks.<ref name="Akiner2009">{{cite book |first=Shirin |last=Akiner |title=Religious Language of a Belarusian Tatar Kitab: A Cultural Monument of Islam in Europe: with a Latin-script Transliteration of the British Library Tatar Belarusian Kitab (OR 13020) on CD-ROM |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FEJ7F2cmCt0C&pg=PA53 |year=2009 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3447030274 |pages=53–54}}</ref>

===Sikh Khalsa and Sikh Empire===

[[Misr Diwan Chand]] became the first Hindu governor of Kashmir under Singh and enacted dozens of anti-Muslim laws. He raised the tax levels of Muslim subjects, demolished the Jamia Masjid of [[Srinagar]] and prohibited cow slaughter. The punishment for cow slaughter was the death penalty without any exception.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DqAHweWRUs0C&q=diwan+chand+kashmir&pg=PA198 |title=The Valley of Kashmir |isbn=978-8120616301 |last1=Lawrence |first1=Sir Walter Roper |year=1895|publisher=Asian Educational Services }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dlBjzE-1ML8C&q=ranjit+singh+anti+muslim+kashmir&pg=PA39 |title=Languages of Belonging |isbn=9781850656944 |last1=Zutshi |first1=Chitralekha |year=2004|publisher=Hurst & Company }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u_AMX5RI_YUC&q=maharaja+ranjit+singh+cow+slaughter&pg=PA64 |title=Religion and Nationalism in India |isbn=978-0415201087 |last1=Deol |first1=Harnik |year=2000|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> [[Shah Shujah Durrani]], the grandson of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], wanted to implement similar anti-cow slaughter policies in the [[Emirate of Afghanistan]] and with help from Singh and the [[East India Company]] regained the Afghan throne and imposed a ban on cow slaughter in Kabul.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zsoC6GWr47QC&q=maharaja+ranjit+singh+cow+slaughter+afghanistan&pg=PA32 |title=Explore Kashmiri Pandits |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=9780963479860}}</ref>

[[Syed Ahmad Barelvi|Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi]] declared war against Maharaja Ranjit Singh and recruited many Muslims from madrassas. However the Yousufzai and Muhammadzai Khawaneen did not like his egalitarian ideals and betrayed Sayyid Ahmed Shahid and his army at the battle of Balakot and supported the Sikh Army in the Battle of Balakote in 1831, and Barelvi's head was severed by the Sikh General [[Hari Singh Nalwa]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zu2b0qf9wEkC&q=ranjit+singh+destroy+mosque+peshawar&pg=PA75 |title=Jihad |isbn=978-1606931615 |last1=Joshi-Ford |first1=Sunita |date=11 July 2008|publisher=Strategic Book }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGCBNTDv7acC&q=sayyad+ahmed+barelvi+1831&pg=PA84 |title=A Concise History of India |isbn=978-0521639743 |last1=Metcalf |first1=Barbara D |last2=Metcalf |first2=Thomas R |year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref>

Muslims still revered Sayyid Ahmed, however he was defeated and killed in the battle by Sikh Army which was commanded by [[Hari Singh Nalwa]] and [[Gulab Singh]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/stream/gulabsingh179218031570mbp/gulabsingh179218031570mbp_djvu.txt |title=Full text of "Gulab Singh 1792 1858" |via=Archive.org |access-date=9 February 2016 |publisher=Martin Hopkinson Limited. |date=30 November 1929}}</ref> Raja Aggar Khan of [[Rajouri]] was defeated, humiliated by the Sikh Army commander Gulab Singh and was brought to Lahore where he was beheaded by Gulab Singh of Jammu. Raja Sultan Khan of [[Bhimber]] also met the same fate when he was defeated and captured by the Dogra ruler Gulab Singh and brought to [[Jammu]] where he was imprisoned. Raja Sultan Khan later died in prison.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4S99oXkx_-cC&q=aggar+khan+captured+rajouri&pg=PA26 |title=Footprints in the Snow |isbn=978-8170622925 |last1=Bakshi |first1=G.D. |year=2002|publisher=Lancer Publishers }}</ref>

=== Dutch East India Company ===

The Dutch East India Company and Japanese samurai they hired as mercenaries committed genocide against Muslim Bandanese on the Banda islands, quartering in their mosques, humiliating their women and beheading their orang kaya in the [[Dutch conquest of the Banda Islands|conquest]] of the [[Governorate of the Banda Islands|Banda Islands]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Isnaeni |first=Hendri F. |date=5 April 2010 |title=The VOC Genocide – Historia |url=https://historibersama.com/the-voc-genocide-historia/ |access-date= |website=Histori Bersama |publisher= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Farid |first=Muhammad |date= |title=Commemorating the Banda genocide in 1621 |url=https://pala.wfm.nl/banda-genocide/ |access-date= |website=Banda – PALA |publisher= |quote=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kenji |first1=Tsuchiya |last2=Siegel |first2=James |date=1990 |title=Invincible Kitsch or as Tourists in the Age of Des Alwi |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3351230 |journal=Indonesia |volume= |issue=50 |pages=61–76 |doi=10.2307/3351230 |jstor=3351230 |hdl=1813/53943 |access-date=|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Worrall |first=Simon |date=23 June 2012 |title=The world's oldest clove tree |work=BBC |location= |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-18551857 |access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Clulow |first=Adam |date=2016 |title=Modern Painting of Massacre at Banda |url=https://amboyna.org/archive/modern-painting-massacre-banda |access-date= |website=The Amboyna Conspiracy Trial |publisher= |quote= |archive-date=7 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607175857/https://amboyna.org/archive/modern-painting-massacre-banda |url-status=dead }}</ref>