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Peruvian Armed Forces
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== History == === 19th century === The [[Peruvian Army]] was officially established on 18 August 1821 when the Peruvian Guard Legion was established by the government of general [[José de San Martín]] during the [[Peruvian War of Independence]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=PERÚ |first=NOTICIAS EL COMERCIO |date=2020-08-18 |title=Bicentenario {{!}} Ejército del Perú reveló que la fecha de su creación fue el 18 de agosto de 1821 {{!}} coronavirus {{!}} {{!}} PERU |url=https://elcomercio.pe/peru/bicentenario-ejercito-del-peru-revela-que-la-fecha-de-su-creacion-fue-el-18-de-agosto-de-1821-coronavirus-nnpp-noticia/ |access-date=2023-03-29 |newspaper=El Comercio |language=es}}</ref> San Martín would found the [[Peruvian Navy]] months later on 8 October 1821. The first international conflict fought by the newly formed republic was the [[Gran Colombia-Peru War]], a maritime and terrestrial conflict against the state of the [[Gran Colombia]], which was formed by the current-day states of [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Panama]] and [[Venezuela]]. In early 1828, an incursion of Colombian troops in Bolivia sent by [[Simon Bolivar]] with the objective of gaining a foothold and influence in the country, forced Peru to launch a campaign against Bolivia to successfully force the Colombian expeditionary force to leave the country. Furious, Bolivar resolved to declare war against Peru on June 3, 1828, with former president of Bolivia [[Antonio Jose de Sucre]] being appointed Commander of the Colombian Army. The Peruvian Navy immediately proceeded to occupy and establish blockades along the Gran Colombia coasts, winning the first confrontation in the [[Battle of Punta Malpelo]], forcing the Colombians to retreat. Victorious, the Peruvian navy set its sights on the strategic port of [[Guayaquil]] and proceeded to attack it at the [[Battle of Cruces]], which saw the destruction of the Grancolombian pacific fleet and the naval blockade of the city of Guayaquil until the end of the conflict. In the land, the ties were more balanced, with the outnumbered Peruvian Army seizing the city of [[Cuenca, Ecuador|Cuenca]] on the Battle of Saraguro on February 13, 1829, and pushing north near Guayaquil. However, Venezuelan general De Sucre inflicted a defeat on the Peruvians at the [[Battle of Tarqui]]. The vastly outnumbered 900 Peruvian infantrymen were forced to retreat against the approaching 4,500 Grancolombian counterattack force in order to evade an encirclement. After the battle, Peru adopted a defensive strategy, establishing defensive lines along the [[Jaén, Peru|Jaen]] and [[Maynas Province, Peru|Maynas]], which were claimed by the Grancolombians and one of their motivations for the war. After a series of skirmishes, the Peruvian army was able to hold those provinces, but had to end the occupation of Guayaquil. On February 28, 1829, Peruvian president La Mar and Sucre signed the La Mar-Sucre convention, which ended hostilities but left the borders on an ambiguous state. Yet, this was seen as a political win by the Peruvians, as holding these provinces opened the way of annexation, which would later be the cause of several Peruvian-Ecuadorian wars after the dissolution of the Gran Colombia in 1830. The next major conflict faced Peru against the newly independent state of Ecuador in the [[Ecuadorian-Peruvian War (1857-1860)]], the first of the main conflicts between these two countries. The conflict originated due to the international debt Ecuador, as the Gran Colombia, had to take from European creditors, mainly British, after the war of independence from Spain. Wanting to find a source of income, finances minister Francisco de Paula gave the creditors rights to several territories in the forest, some of them over disputed lands with Peru. This caused a Peruvian protest, as the controversy of the lands, specifically of the northern half of the [[Department of Loreto]] in Peru was a major point of contention first with the Gran Colombia, and then with Ecuador and Colombia. Ecuador reinstated its sovereign over the lands north of the Amazon, and assured British creditors of their rights over that territory. Thus, on October 26, 1858, the Peruvian congress authorized president [[Ramón Castilla]] to command and army against Ecuador if needed to secure the national territory against European creditors. A blockade against Ecuadorian ports was also preferred. On November 1, 1858, the first Peruvian frigate arrived in Ecuadorian waters, and the start of the blockade of Guayaquil and Quito started. By this time, Ecuador was facing an internal crisis, called by Ecuadorian history books as the “Terrible Year”, in which a number of different politicians were fighting for control of the country as its coasts were in the middle of a blockade. Receiving no response from an unified Ecuadorian government, Castilla ordered 5,000 of his troops to advance into the Ecuadorian province of “Mapasingue”, near Guayaquil, in order to force Ecuador to accept the Peruvians terms and to abandon its desires on the Amazon. Force by military action, the four governments vying for control of Ecuador selected caudillo [[Guillermo Franco (Ecuadorian general)|Guillermo Franco]] as the sole representative of the country, signing the Treaty of Mapasingue with Castilla, thus agreeing to the Peruvian terms and stating the withdrawal of Peruvian troops from Ecuador. This angered the Ecuadorians, which called Franco as a traitor for collaborating with the Peruvians, and ousted him in the [[Battle of Guayaquil]]. This action strengthened the Peruvian position on the Amazon, which would not be challenged until the next century. The [[War of the Pacific]], a conflict between the [[Bolivia-Peru alliance]] and [[Chile]] resulted with one of the armed forces' worst failures as Chilean troops occupied the capital of [[Lima]] and the southern provinces, with Peru ceding the mineral-rich [[Arica Province (Peru)|Arica Province]] to Chile after signing the [[Treaty of Ancón]] and later treaties. The incompetence of the government and military was so great during the War of the Pacific period that it led to an intellectual movement dedicated to restoring pride for Peru, creating modern [[Peruvian nationalism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chavarría |first=Jesús |date=1 May 1970 |title=The Intellectuals and the Crisis of Modern Peruvian Nationalism: 1870-1919 |journal=Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=257–278|doi=10.1215/00182168-50.2.257 }}</ref> === 20th century === On 20 May 1929, the [[Peruvian Air Force]] was created as the Peruvian Aviation Corps when the aviation units of the army and navy merged. Following [[World War II]] and the [[Ecuadorian–Peruvian War]], the [[Joint Command of the Armed Forces of Peru]] was created in 1957 after observations were made that the branches needed a centralized organization to coordinate the activities of the branches. When the government of [[Manuel Prado Ugarteche]] attempted to move political power to civilians, the military became upset with the new approach.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=1962-11-01 |title=Peru |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1962/11/peru/658157/ |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=[[The Atlantic]] |language=en}}</ref> In addition, the [[1962 Peruvian general election]] saw the rise of the [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance]], with the armed forces and traditional [[Aristocracy|aristocrats]] viewing their platform of [[land reform]] and the political inclusion of the [[indigenous peoples of Peru]] as a threat.<ref name=":3" /> After [[Fernando Belaúnde]], a presidential candidate in election, raised concerns of electoral fraud, the military would support Belaúnde and would commit the [[1962 Peruvian coup d'état]] against President Prado.<ref name=":3" /> The [[Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru]] led the nation following the [[1968 Peruvian coup d'état]], first headed by [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]], who instituted [[left-wing]] policies that included [[Nationalization|nationalizing]] the economy and enacting the [[Peruvian Agrarian Reform]]. During the Revolutionary Government, the nation's debt increased heavily as a result of excessive borrowing and the [[1970s energy crisis]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brands |first=Hal |date=15 September 2010 |title=The United States and the Peruvian Challenge, 1968–1975 |journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=471–490 |doi=10.1080/09592296.2010.508418 |s2cid=154119414}}</ref> Following the ''[[Tacnazo]]'' and subsequent overthrow of Velasco in 1975, [[Francisco Morales Bermúdez]] would lead the Revolutionary Government until 1980, with his military government participating in the political repression of leftists during [[Operation Condor]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Operation Condor {{!}} international campaign {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Operation-Condor |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Plan Verde - Intelligence Appraisal.jpg|thumb|Excerpt of ''[[Plan Verde]]'' addendum that was created following the [[1990 Peruvian general election|election]] of [[Alberto Fujimori]]]] During the government of [[Alan García]], the nation would begin to begin to experience [[hyperinflation]] and increased the beginning of the [[internal conflict in Peru]] with [[Shining Path]].<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal |last=Burt |first=Jo-Marie |date=September–October 1998 |title=Unsettled accounts: militarization and memory in postwar Peru |journal=[[NACLA|NACLA Report on the Americas]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=35–41 |doi=10.1080/10714839.1998.11725657 |quote=the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.}}</ref> The armed force's perception that President Garcia's policies were detrimental to the nation resulted with the creation of ''[[Plan Verde]]'', a [[Clandestine operation|clandestine]] [[military operation]] that involved the [[genocide]] of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or [[censorship]] of media in the nation and the establishment of a [[neoliberal]] economy controlled by a [[military junta]] in Peru.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Rospigliosi |first=Fernando |title=Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista |publisher=Instituto de Estudios Peruanos |year=1996 |location=Lima, Peru |pages=46–47}}</ref><ref name="CANbio">{{cite journal |last1=Gaussens |first1=Pierre |date=2020 |title=The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Bioethics]] |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=180+ |doi=10.7202/1073797ar |s2cid=234586692 |quote=a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":42"/><ref name="Alfredo">{{cite book |author=Alfredo Schulte-Bockholt |title=The politics of organized crime and the organized crime of politics: a study in criminal power |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7391-1358-5 |pages=114–118 |chapter=Chapter 5: Elites, Cocaine, and Power in Colombia and Peru |quote=important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan. ... Fujimori essentially adopted the Green Plan and the military became a partner in the regime. ... The self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the Green Plan}}</ref> A coup initially included in the plan was opposed by [[Anthony C. E. Quainton]], the [[United States Ambassador to Peru]].<ref name=":102">{{Cite journal |last=Avilés |first=William |date=Spring 2009 |title=Despite Insurgency: Reducing Military Prerogatives in Colombia and Peru |journal=[[Latin American Politics and Society]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=57–85 |doi=10.1111/j.1548-2456.2009.00040.x |s2cid=154153310}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=Rospigliosi |first=Fernando |title=Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista |publisher=Instituto de Estudios Peruanos |year=1996 |location=Lima, Peru |pages=28–40}}</ref> Military planners also decided against the coup as they expected [[Mario Vargas Llosa]], a neoliberal candidate, to be elected in the [[1990 Peruvian general election]].<ref name=":102"/><ref name=":16" /> Vargas Llosa later reported that Ambassador Quainton, personally told him that allegedly leaked documents of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)]] purportedly being supportive of the candidacy of his opponent, [[Alberto Fujimori]], were authentic,<ref name="REND12">{{Cite book |last=Rendón |first=Silvio |title=La intervención de los Estados Unidos en el Perú |publisher=Editorial Sur |year=2013 |isbn=9786124574139 |pages=145–150}}</ref> with Rendón writing that the United States supported Fujimori because of his relationship with [[Vladimiro Montesinos]], who had previously been charged with spying on the Peruvian armed forces for the CIA.<ref name="Alfredo" /><ref name="REND12"/> Fujimori was elected president of Peru in 1990, planning a coup with his military handlers during his next two years in office, with Fujimori becoming a [[figurehead]] leader<ref name=":8">{{bullet}}{{Cite news |last=Llosa |first=Mario Vargas |date=1994-03-27 |title=Ideas & Trends: In His Words; Unmasking the Killers in Peru Won't Bring Democracy Back to Life |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/27/weekinreview/ideas-trends-in-his-words-unmasking-the-killers-in-peru-wont.html |access-date=2023-03-24 |issn=0362-4331 |quote=The coup of April 5, 1992, carried out by high-ranking military felons who used the President of the Republic himself as their figurehead, had as one of its stated objectives a guaranteed free hand for the armed forces in the anti-subversion campaign, the same armed forces for whom the democratic system – a critical Congress, an independent judiciary, a free press – constituted an intolerable obstacle.}} *{{cite web |date=August 2002 |title=Spymaster |url=https://www.journeyman.tv/film_documents/1368/transcript/ |access-date=29 March 2023 |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |language=en |quote=Lester: Though few questioned it , Montesinos was a novel choice. Peru's army had banished him for selling secrets to America's CIA, but he'd prospered as a defence lawyer – for accused drug traffickers. ... Lester: Did Fujmori control Montesinos or did Montesinos control Fujimori? ... [[Michael Shifter|Shifter]]: As information comes out, it seems increasingly clear that Montesinos was the power in Peru.}} *{{cite news |last1=Keller |first1=Paul |date=26 October 2000 |title=Fujimori in OAS talks PERU CRISIS UNCERTAINTY DEEPENS AFTER RETURN OF EX-SPY CHIEF |agency=[[Financial Times]] |quote=Mr Montesinos ... and his military faction, ... for the moment, has chosen to keep Mr Fujimori as its civilian figurehead}} *{{cite web |date=2001 |title=THE CRISIS OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE IN THE ANDES |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/publication/Crisis%20Dem%20Gov%20Rpt%20on%20Amer%202.pdf |access-date=25 March 2023 |website=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]] |quote=Alberto Fujimori,... as later events would seem to confirm—merely the figurehead of a regime governed for all practical purposes by the Intelligence Service and the leadership of the armed forces}} *{{cite news |date=9 January 2001 |title=Questions And Answers: Mario Vargas Llosa |language=en |work=[[Newsweek]] |url=https://www.newsweek.com/questions-and-answers-mario-vargas-llosa-150783 |access-date=25 March 2023 |quote=Fujimori became a kind of, well, a figurehead}}</ref> and adopting many of the objectives of ''Plan Verde'' following the [[1992 Peruvian self-coup]].<ref name="Alfredo" /><ref name=":102"/><ref name="LAgolpe12">{{cite journal |last1=Cameron |first1=Maxwell A. |date=June 1998 |title=Latin American Autogolpes: Dangerous Undertows in the Third Wave of Democratisation |journal=[[Third World Quarterly]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=228 |doi=10.1080/01436599814433 |quote=the outlines for Peru's presidential coup were first developed within the armed forces before the 1990 election. This Green Plan was shown to President Fujimori after the 1990 election before his inauguration. Thus, the president was able to prepare for an eventual self-coup during the first two years of his administration}}</ref><ref name=":63">{{Cite journal |date=12 July 1993 |title=El "Plan Verde" Historia de una traición |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/310286817/El-Plan-Verde |journal=Oiga |volume=647}}</ref> During the Fujimori administration, Montesinos would assume control of the government and placed weak officers as branch heads in order to maintain control, with every military branch's leader being personally filled by Montesinos.<ref name=":132">{{cite journal |last1=McMillan |first1=John |last2=Zoido |first2=Pablo |date=Autumn 2004 |title=How to Subvert Democracy: Montesinos in Peru |journal=[[The Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=69–92 |doi=10.1257/0895330042632690 |quote=|hdl=10419/76612 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> During this time, the armed forces' [[Grupo Colina]] [[death squad]] would kill dozens during various massacres in Peru and the military would participate in the [[Cenepa War]] against [[Ecuador]] in 1995. === 21st century === Following the downfall of Fujimori and Montesinos, the use of the ''[[terruqueo]]'' in the beginning of the twenty-first century was used to influence the public instead of violence performed by the military, though its use would provide impunity to members of the armed forces who violently responded to protests in the nation.<ref name=":22">{{cite journal |last1=Villalba |first1=Fernando Velásquez |date=2022 |title=A TOTALIDADE NEOLIBERAL-FUJIMORISTA: ESTIGMATIZAÇÃO E COLONIALIDADE NO PERU CONTEMPORÂNEO |url=https://www.scielo.br/j/rbcsoc/a/gL6vVVdtrphxHhmz9QWypqr/?lang=pt |journal=Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais |volume=37 |issue=109 |pages=e3710906 |doi=10.1590/3710906/2022 |s2cid=251877338 |access-date=18 January 2023 |quote=terruqueo, ou seja, a construção artificial, racista e conveniente de um inimigo sociopolítico para deslegitimar formas de protesto social|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Loanes |first=Ellen |date=2023-01-14 |title=Peru's violent unrest shows no signs of stopping |url=https://www.vox.com/2023/1/14/23554057/peru-protests-violence-boluarte-castillo-lima |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115032408/https://www.vox.com/2023/1/14/23554057/peru-protests-violence-boluarte-castillo-lima |archive-date=15 January 2023 |access-date=2023-01-15 |website=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":40">{{Cite web |title=CIDH llama al "diálogo amplio" ante "clima de extrema polarización" en Perú |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/spa/per%C3%BA-crisis_cidh-llama-al--di%C3%A1logo-amplio--ante--clima-de-extrema-polarizaci%C3%B3n--en-per%C3%BA/48203924 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116175925/https://www.swissinfo.ch/spa/per%C3%BA-crisis_cidh-llama-al--di%C3%A1logo-amplio--ante--clima-de-extrema-polarizaci%C3%B3n--en-per%C3%BA/48203924 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |access-date=2023-01-13 |website=[[EFE]] |language=es}}</ref> Following the [[2022 Peruvian political crisis]], [[Peruvian protests (2022–present)|widespread protests]] occurred throughout Peru; the armed forces performed [[human rights violations]] against demonstrators<ref name=":45">{{Cite web |last= |date=2023-01-15 |title=Emergencia en Perú: la represión del gobierno de Boluarte expone violaciones a los derechos humanos |url=https://ojo-publico.com/4201/represion-peru-expone-graves-vulneraciones-los-derechos-humanos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117182902/https://ojo-publico.com/4201/represion-peru-expone-graves-vulneraciones-los-derechos-humanos |archive-date=17 January 2023 |access-date=2023-01-17 |website=[[Ojo Público]] |language=es}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite web |date=22 December 2022 |title=Peru: Investigate Killings, Injuries During Protests |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/12/22/peru-investigate-killings-injuries-during-protests |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104133658/https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/12/22/peru-investigate-killings-injuries-during-protests |archive-date=4 January 2023 |access-date=2022-12-25 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]] |language=en}}</ref> and the politicization of the armed forces created concerns about the creation of a [[Military junta|civilian-military government]] in Peru.<ref name=":29">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-01-04 |title=Perú Libre presentará moción de interpelación contra ministro del Interior |url=https://larepublica.pe/politica/2023/01/03/marcha-por-la-paz-peru-libre-presentara-mocion-de-interpelacion-contra-ministro-del-interior-victor-rojas-pnp-atmp/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112005354/https://larepublica.pe/politica/2023/01/03/marcha-por-la-paz-peru-libre-presentara-mocion-de-interpelacion-contra-ministro-del-interior-victor-rojas-pnp-atmp/ |archive-date=12 January 2023 |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=[[La República (Peru)|La República]] |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-01-02 |title=Daniel Encinas: "Dina Boluarte ha hecho una coalición con fuerzas que no ganaron la elección" |url=https://larepublica.pe/politica/actualidad/2023/01/02/pedro-castillo-daniel-encinas-dina-boluarte-ha-hecho-una-coalicion-con-fuerzas-que-no-ganaron-la-eleccion-golpe-de-estado-fuerzas-armadas-adelanto-de-elecciones/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116172824/https://larepublica.pe/politica/actualidad/2023/01/02/pedro-castillo-daniel-encinas-dina-boluarte-ha-hecho-una-coalicion-con-fuerzas-que-no-ganaron-la-eleccion-golpe-de-estado-fuerzas-armadas-adelanto-de-elecciones/ |archive-date=16 January 2023 |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=[[La República (Peru)|La República]] |language=es}}</ref>
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