Editing Polynesian languages (section)

==Internal classification==
===Phylogenetic classification===
Polynesian languages fall into two branches, [[Tongic languages|Tongic]] and [[Nuclear Polynesian languages|Nuclear Polynesian]]. [[Tongan language|Tongan]] and [[Niuean language|Niuean]] constitute the Tongic branch; all the rest are part of the Nuclear Polynesian branch.<ref>{{cite book | last = Lynch | first = John | author-link = John Lynch (linguist) |author2=Malcolm Ross |author2-link=Malcolm Ross (linguist) |author3=Terry Crowley |author3-link=Terry Crowley (linguist) | year = 2002 | title = The Oceanic languages | location = Richmond, Surrey | publisher = Curzon | isbn = 978-0-7007-1128-4 | oclc = 48929366 }}</ref>

{{tree list}}
*'''Polynesian'''
**[[Nuclear Polynesian languages|Nuclear Polynesian]]
***Ellicean
****Ellicean–Outlier
*****[[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]]
*****[[Nukuoro language|Nukuoro]] ([[Nukuoro]] in the [[Federated States of Micronesia]])
*****[[Kapingamarangi language|Kapingamarangi]] (on [[Kapingamarangi]] in [[Federated States of Micronesia]])
*****[[Nukuria language|Nukuria]] ([[Nuguria]] in eastern [[Papua New Guinea]])<ref>{{cite journal|last=Marck |first=Jeff |year=2000 |title=Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/90887/2/Marck-2000-PolynesianLanguageCultureHistory.pdf  |location=Canberra |journal=Pacific Linguistics}}</ref>
*****[[Takuu language|Takuu]] ([[Takuu Atoll]] in eastern [[Papua New Guinea]])
*****[[Nukumanu language|Nukumanu]] ([[Nukumanu]] in the east of [[Papua New Guinea]])
*****[[Ontong Java language|Ontong Java]] (or Luangiua; [[Ontong Java]], [[Solomon Islands]])
*****[[Sikaiana language|Sikaiana]] ([[Sikaiana]], [[Solomon Islands]])
*****[[Vaeakau-Taumako language|Pileni]] ([[Reef Islands]], [[Solomon Islands]])
****[[Samoic languages|Samoic]]
*****[[Samoan language|Samoan]]
*****[[Tokelauan language|Tokelauan]]
***Eastern Polynesian
****[[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]] ([[Easter Island]])
**** Central–Eastern Polynesian
***** Marquesic
******Marquesan–Mangareva
*******[[Marquesan language|Marquesan]] ([[Marquesas Islands]], [[French Polynesia]])
*******[[Mangareva language|Mangareva]] ([[Gambier Islands]], [[French Polynesia]])
******[[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ([[Hawaii]])
***** Tahitic
******[[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] ([[Society Islands]], [[French Polynesia]])
******[[Austral language|Austral]] ([[Austral Islands]], [[French Polynesia]])
******[[Rapa language|Rapa]] ([[Rapa Iti]], [[French Polynesia]])
******[[Tuamotuan language|Tuamotuan]] ([[Tuamotu|Tuamotu Archipelago]], French Polynesia)
******[[Cook Islands Māori|Rarotongan]] (Cook Islands Māori, [[Cook Islands]])
******[[Rakahanga-Manihiki language|Rakahanga-Manihiki]] ([[Rakahanga]] and [[Manihiki]], [[Northern Cook Islands]])
******[[Penrhyn language|Penrhyn]] (or Tongarevan; [[Tongareva atoll|Tongareva]], [[Northern Cook Islands]])
******[[Māori language|Māori]] ([[New Zealand]])
******[[Moriori language|Moriori]] ([[Chatham Islands]], [[New Zealand]]) †
***Futunic (?):
****[[Wallisian language|Wallisian]] or East Uvean (Fakaʻuvea) ([[Wallis (island)|Wallis Island]], [[Wallis and Futuna]])
****[[Futunan language|Futunan]] or East Futunan (Fakafutuna) ([[Futuna (Wallis and Futuna)|Futuna Island]], [[Wallis and Futuna]])
****[[West Uvean language|West Uvean]] or Faga Uvea ([[Ouvéa]] off [[New Caledonia]])
****[[Pukapukan language|Pukapukan]] ([[Pukapuka]], northern [[Cook Islands]])
****[[Anuta language|Anuta]] ([[Anuta|Anuta Island]], [[Solomon Islands]])
****[[Rennellese language|Rennellese]] ([[Rennell Island|Rennell]] and [[Bellona Island|Bellona]] island, [[Solomon Islands]])
****[[Tikopia language|Tikopia]] ([[Tikopia|Tikopia Island]], [[Solomon Islands]])
****[[Vaeakau-Taumako language|Vaeakau-Taumako]] (?) ([[Reef Islands]] and [[Taumako]] island, [[Solomon Islands]])
****[[Futuna-Aniwa language|Futuna-Aniwa]] or West Futunan ([[Futuna Island, Vanuatu|Futuna]] and [[Aniwa Island|Aniwa]] in [[Vanuatu]])
****[[Mele-Fila language|Mele-Fila]] ([[Mele (island)|Mele Island]], [[Vanuatu]])
****[[Emae language|Emae]] ([[Emae|Emae Island]], [[Vanuatu]])
**[[Tongic languages|Tongic]]
***[[Tongan language|Tongan]]
***[[Niuafoʻou language|Niuafoʻou]] (on [[Niuafoʻou|Niuafoʻou Island]], [[Tonga]])
***[[Niuean language|Niuean]]
{{tree list/end}}

===History of classification===
The contemporary classification of the Polynesian languages began with certain observations by [[Andrew Pawley]] in 1966 based on shared innovations in phonology, vocabulary and grammar showing that the East Polynesian languages were more closely related to Samoan than they were to Tongan, calling Tongan and its nearby relative Niuean "Tongic" and Samoan and all other Polynesian languages of the study "Nuclear Polynesian".<ref name="pawley66">Pawley, Andrew, 1966, Polynesian languages: a subgrouping based upon shared innovations in morphology. ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 75(1):39–64. {{JSTOR|20704348}}.</ref>

Previously, there had been lexicostatistical studies<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Elbert |first=Samuel H. |date=July 1953 |title=Internal Relationships of Polynesian Languages and Dialects |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/soutjanth.9.2.3628573 |journal=Southwestern Journal of Anthropology |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=147–173 |doi=10.1086/soutjanth.9.2.3628573 |issn=0038-4801|jstor=3628573|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Emory|first=Kenneth P. |date=1963 |title=East Polynesian relationships: settlement pattern and time involved as indicated by vocabulary agreements |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20704084 |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=78–100 |issn=0032-4000|jstor=20704084}}</ref> that squarely suggested a "West Polynesian" group composed of at least Tongan and Samoan and that an "East Polynesian" group was equally distant from both Tongan and Samoan.

Pawley published another study in 1967.<ref name="pawley67">Pawley, Andrew, 1967, The relationships of Polynesian Outlier languages. ''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 76(3):259–296. {{JSTOR|20704480}}.</ref> It began the process of extracting relationships from Polynesian languages on small islands in Melanesia, the "[[Polynesian Outliers]]", whose languages Pawley was able to trace to East Futuna in the case of those farther south and perhaps to Samoa itself in the case of those more to the north.

Except for some minor differentiation of the East Polynesian tree, further study paused for almost twenty years until Wilson<ref name="Wilson85">Wilson, William H., 1985, Evidence for an Outlier source for the Proto-Eastern-Polynesian pronominal system. ''Oceanic Linguistics'' 24(1/2):85-133. {{doi|10.2307/3623064}}. {{JSTOR|3623064}}.</ref> published a study of Polynesian pronominal systems in 1985 suggesting that there was a special relationship between the East Polynesian languages and all other Nuclear Polynesian but for Futunic, and calling that extra-Futunic group the "[[Ellicean languages]]". Furthermore, East Polynesian was found to more likely have emerged from extra-Samoan Ellicean than out of Samoa itself, in contradiction to the long assumption of a Samoan homeland for the origins of East Polynesian. Wilson named this new group "Ellicean" after the pre-independence name of Tuvalu and presented evidence for subgroups within that overarching category.

Marck,<ref name="Marck">Marck, Jeff (2000), ''Topics in Polynesian languages and culture history''. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.</ref> in 2000, was able to offer some support for some aspects of Wilson's suggestion through comparisons of shared sporadic (irregular, unexpected) sound changes, e.&nbsp;g., Proto-Polynesian and Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian *mafu 'to heal' becoming Proto-Ellicean *mafo. This was made possible by the massive Polynesian language comparative lexicon ("Pollex" – with reconstructions) of Biggs and Clark.<ref name="Biggs, Bruce 1990">Biggs, Bruce (1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994) and Bruce Biggs and Ross Clark (1996), [https://pollex.eva.mpg.de/ Pollex: Comparative Polynesian Lexicon (computer data base)]. Auckland: Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland.</ref>

===Internal correspondences===
Partly because Polynesian languages split from one another comparatively recently, many words in these languages remain similar to corresponding words in others. The table below demonstrates this with the words for 'sky', 'north wind', 'woman', 'house' and 'parent' in a representative selection of languages: [[Tongan language|Tongan]]; [[Niuean language|Niuean]]; [[Samoan language|Samoan]]; [[Sikaiana language|Sikaiana]]; [[Takuu]]; [[North Marquesan language|North Marquesan]]; [[South Marquesan language|South Marquesan]]; [[Mangarevan language|Mangarevan]]; [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]; [[Rapanui language]]; [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]]; [[Māori language|Māori]] and [[Cook Islands Māori]] (Rarotongan).
<div style="overflow:auto;">
{| class="wikitable" |
!
!Tongan
!Niuean
!Samoan
!Sikaiana
!Takuu
!North Marquesan
!South Marquesan
!Mangarevan
!Hawaiian
!Rapanui
!Tahitian
!Māori
!Rarotongan
|-
|''sky''
|{{IPA|/laŋi/}}
|{{IPA|/laŋi/}}
|{{IPA|/laŋi/}}
|{{IPA|/lani/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾani/}}
|{{IPA|/ʔaki/}}
|{{IPA|/ʔani/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾaŋi/}}
|{{IPA|/lani/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾaŋi/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾaʔi/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾaŋi/}}
|{{IPA|/ɾaŋi/}}
|-
|''north wind''
|{{IPA|/tokelau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokelau/}}
|{{IPA|/toʔelau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokelau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokoɾau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokoʔau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokoʔau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokeɾau/}}
|{{IPA|/koʔolau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokeɾau/}}
|{{IPA|/toʔeɾau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokeɾau/}}
|{{IPA|/tokeɾau/}}
|-
|''woman''
|{{IPA|/fefine/}}
|{{IPA|/fifine/}}
|{{IPA|/fafine/}}
|{{IPA|/hahine/}}
|{{IPA|/ffine/}}
|{{IPA|/vehine/}}
|{{IPA|/vehine/}}
|{{IPA|/veine/}}
|{{IPA|/wahine/}}
|
|{{IPA|/vahine/}}
|{{IPA|/wahine/}}
|{{IPA|/vaʔine/}}
|-
|''house''
|{{IPA|/fale/}}
|{{IPA|/fale/}}
|{{IPA|/fale/}}
|{{IPA|/hale/}}
|{{IPA|/faɾe/}}
|{{IPA|/haʔe/}}
|{{IPA|/haʔe/}}
|{{IPA|/faɾe/}}
|{{IPA|/hale/}}
|{{IPA|/haɾe/}}
|{{IPA|/faɾe/}}
|{{IPA|/ɸaɾe/}}
|{{IPA|/ʔaɾe/}}
|-
|''parent''
|{{IPA|/maːtuʔa/}}
|{{IPA|/motua/}}
|{{IPA|/matua/}}
|
|{{IPA|/maatua/}}
|{{IPA|/motua/}}
|{{IPA|/motua/}}
|{{IPA|/matua/}}
|{{IPA|/makua/}}
|{{IPA|/matuʔa/}}
|{{IPA|/metua/}}
|{{IPA|/matua/}}
|{{IPA|/metua/}}
|}</div>

Certain regular correspondences can be noted between different Polynesian languages. For example, the Māori sounds {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/ɾ/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, and {{IPA|/ŋ/}} correspond to {{IPA|/ʔ/}}, {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/k/}}, and {{IPA|/n/}} in Hawaiian. Accordingly, "man" is ''tangata'' in Māori and ''kanaka'' in Hawaiian, and Māori ''roa'' "long" corresponds to Hawaiian ''loa''. The famous Hawaiian greeting ''aloha'' corresponds to Māori ''aroha'', "love, tender emotion". Similarly, the Hawaiian word for [[kava]] is ''{{okina}}awa''.

Similarities in basic vocabulary may allow speakers from different island groups to achieve a significant degree of understanding of each other's speech. When a particular language shows unexpectedly large divergence in vocabulary, this may be the result of a [[Taboo on the dead#The taboo against naming the dead|name-avoidance taboo situation]] – see examples in [[Tahitian language#Taboo names – piꞌi|Tahitian]], where this has happened often.

Many Polynesian languages have been greatly affected by European colonization. Both Māori and Hawaiian, for example, have lost many speakers to [[English language|English]], and only since the 1990s have they resurged in popularity.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/28/google-disney-maori-new-zealand |title='Māori has gone mainstream': the resurgence of New Zealand's te reo language  |work=The Guardian |author=Eleanor Ainge Roy |date=28 July 2018 |access-date=22 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2019/06/22/452551172/the-hawaiian-language-nearly-died-a-radio-show-sparked-its-revival |title=The Hawaiian Language Nearly Died. A Radio Show Sparked Its Revival |author=Sara Kehaulani Goo |publisher=NPR |date=22 July 2019 |access-date=22 September 2020}}</ref>