Editing Prince Eugene of Savoy (section)

== Early years (1663–1699) ==
=== Hôtel de Soissons ===
[[File:Soisson.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Hôtel de Soissons, Eugene's birthplace. Engraving by [[Israel Silvestre]] c. 1650.]]
Prince Eugene was born at the [[Hôtel de Soissons]] in Paris on 18 October 1663. His mother, [[Olympia Mancini]], was one of [[Cardinal Mazarin]]'s nieces whom the Cardinal had brought to [[Paris]] from [[Rome]] in 1647 to further his (and, to a lesser extent, their) ambitions. The Mancinis were raised at the [[Palais-Royal]] along with the young Louis XIV, with whom Olympia formed an intimate relationship. Yet to her great disappointment, her chance to become queen passed by, and in 1657 she married [[Eugene Maurice, Count of Soissons|Eugene Maurice]], [[Count of Soissons]], [[Count of Dreux]] and Prince of [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]].
[[File:Eugenesparents.jpg|thumb|250x250px|[[Eugene Maurice, Count of Soissons|Eugene Maurice]] and [[Olympia Mancini]], Count and Countess of Soissons, parents of Prince Eugene]]
Together they had had five sons (Eugene being the youngest) and three daughters, but neither parent spent much time with the children: the father, a French general officer, spent much of his time away campaigning, while Olympia's passion for court intrigue meant the children received little attention from her.{{sfn | McKay | Baker | von Savoyen | 1977 | pp=9–10}} The King remained strongly attached to Olympia, so much so that many believed them to be lovers;{{sfn | Somerset | 2014 | p=252}} but her scheming eventually led to her downfall. After falling out of favour at court, Olympia turned to [[La Voisin|Catherine Deshayes]] (known as ''La Voisin''), and to the arts of [[black magic]] and [[astrology]]. It proved a fatal relationship. She became embroiled in the [[Poison affair|"Affaire des poisons"]]; suspicions abounded of her involvement in her husband's premature death in 1673, and even implicated her in a plot to kill the King himself. Whatever the truth, Olympia, rather than face trial, subsequently fled France for [[Brussels]] in January 1680, leaving Eugene in the care of his paternal grandmother, [[Marie de Bourbon, Countess of Soissons]], and of his paternal aunt, [[Princess Louise Christine of Savoy|Louise Christine of Savoy, Princess of Baden]] consort to the heir apparent [[Ferdinand Maximilian, Hereditary Prince of Baden-Baden|Ferdinand Maximilian]], and mother of Prince [[Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden|Louis of Baden]].{{sfn | McKay | Baker | von Savoyen | 1977 | p=9}}

From the age of ten, Eugene had been brought up for a career in the church since he was the youngest of his family.{{sfn | Bancks | 1741 | p=2}}  Eugene's appearance was not impressive—"He was never good-looking ..." wrote the [[Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate|Duchess of Orléans]], "It is true that his eyes are not ugly, but his nose ruins his face; he has two large teeth which are visible at all times"{{sfn | Henderson | 1964 | p=9}} According to the duchess, who was married to Louis XIV's bisexual brother,{{sfn | Orléans | Charlotte | Forster | 1984 | p=2}} the [[Philippe I, Duke of Orléans|Duke of Orléans]], Eugene lived a life of "debauchery" and belonged to a small, effeminate set that included the famous cross-dresser Abbé [[François-Timoléon de Choisy]].{{sfn | Henderson | 1964 | p=10|ps=: the Duchess's remarks about Eugene were made years later, and only after Eugene had entered the service of France's sworn enemies, the Habsburgs.}} In February 1683, to the surprise of his family, the 19-year-old Eugene declared his intention of joining the army. Eugene applied directly to Louis XIV for command of a company in French service, but the King who was said to dislike Eugene's appearance{{sfn|Vehse|Demmler|1856|p=118}} and who had shown no compassion for Olympia's children since her disgrace—refused him out of hand. "The request was modest, not so the petitioner", he remarked. "No one else ever presumed to stare me out so insolently."{{sfn | Heer | 2002 | p=228|ps=: This was a clear infringement of taboo which Louis could not tolerate. There is speculation of other reasons. [[François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois|Louvois]], Louis' Secretary of State for War, detested Eugene's mother after she had rejected a proposed marriage between her daughter and his son.}} Whatever the case, Louis XIV's choice would cost him dearly twenty years later, for it would be precisely Eugene, in collaboration with the [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]], who would defeat the French army at [[Battle of Blenheim|Blenheim]], a decisive battle which checked French military supremacy and political power.

Denied a military career in France, Eugene decided to seek service abroad. One of Eugene's brothers, [[Prince Louis Julius of Savoy|Louis Julius]], had entered Imperial service the previous year, but he had been immediately killed fighting the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1683. When news of his death reached Paris, Eugene decided to travel to Austria in the hope of taking over his brother's command. It was not an unnatural decision: his first cousin, [[Louis of Baden]], was already a leading general in the Imperial army, as was a more distant cousin, [[Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria]]. On the night of 26 July 1683, Eugene left Paris and headed east.<ref>Heer gives Eugene's departure date as 21 July 1683.</ref> Years later, in his memoirs, Eugene recalled his early years in France:<ref name="di Savoia 1811 p.2 ">{{cite book | last=di Savoia | first=E. | title=Mémoires du prince Eugène de Savoie écrits par lui-même | publisher=chez Duprat-Duverger réimprimé à St.-Pétesbourg | year=1811 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJNi29OwxecC | language=fr}}</ref>

[[File:Portret van Eugenius van Savoye, RP-P-1911-714.jpg|thumb|right|Prince Eugene as a young General by German painter David Hoyer|200x200px]]

{{Blockquote|text=Some future historians, good or bad, will perhaps take the trouble to enter into the details of my youth, of which, I scarcely recollect anything. They will certainly speak of my mother; somewhat too intriguing, driven from the court, exiled from Paris, and suspected, I believe, of sorcery, by people who were not, themselves, very great wizards.
They will tell, how I was born in France then left it, my heart swelling with enmity against Louis XIV who refused me a cavalry company, because, said he, I was of too delicate a constitution; that he refused me an abbey, because (based on I don't know what ill talks about me or what invented anecdotes from the gallery of Versailles) that I was more shaped for pleasure than for piety.
There is not a Huguenot expelled by the [[Edict of Fontainebleau|revocation]] of the [[edict of Nantes]] who hated Louis XIV more than I did. Therefore when Louvois<ref>François-Michel le Tellier, [[Marquis de Louvois]], French Secretary of State for War</ref> heard of my departure saying: "So much the better; he will never return into this country again" I swore never to enter it but with arms in my hands. I HAVE KEPT MY WORD.|source= Memoirs of Prince Eugene, of Savoy{{sfn | de Ligne | Mudford | 1811 | p=18}}}}

=== Great Turkish War ===
{{Main|Great Turkish War}}

By May 1683, the Ottoman threat to Emperor [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I's]] capital, [[Vienna]], was very evident. The [[Grand Vizier]], [[Kara Mustafa Pasha]]—encouraged by [[Imre Thököly]]'s Magyar rebellion—had invaded [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] with between 100,000 and 200,000 men;<ref>Childs: ''Warfare in the Seventeenth Century,'' 133. Childs puts the number at 100,000; John Wolf, as high as 200,000.</ref> within two months approximately 90,000 were beneath Vienna's walls. With the 'Turks at the gates', the Emperor fled for the safe refuge of [[Passau]] up the [[Danube]].{{sfn | Stoye | 2007 | p=114}} It was at Leopold I's camp that Eugene arrived in mid-August.

Although Eugene was not of Austrian extraction, he did have [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg]] antecedents. His grandfather, [[Thomas Francis, Prince of Carignano|Thomas Francis]], founder of the [[House of Savoy-Carignano|Carignano line]] of the [[House of Savoy]], was the son of [[Catalina Micaela of Spain|Catherine Michaela of Spain]]—a daughter of [[Philip II of Spain]]—and the great-grandson of the Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. But of more immediate consequence to Leopold I was the fact that Eugene was a relative of [[Victor Amadeus II]], the Duke of Savoy, a connection that the Emperor hoped might prove useful in any future confrontation with France.{{sfn | Henderson | 1964 | p=12}} These ties, together with his ascetic manner and appearance (a positive advantage to him at the sombre court of Leopold I),{{sfn | Churchill | 1933 | p=467}} ensured the refugee from the hated French king a warm welcome at Passau, and a position in Imperial service.{{sfn | Henderson | 1964 | p=12}} Though French was his favoured language, he communicated with Leopold in Italian, as the Emperor (though he knew it perfectly) disliked French. But Eugene also had a reasonable command of German, which he understood very easily, something that helped him much in the military.<ref>''The life of Prince Eugene of Savoy'', Charles de Ligne</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=I will devote all my strength, all my courage, and if need be, my last drop of blood, to the service of your Imperial Majesty.|source=Prince Eugene to [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]]{{sfn | Henderson | 1964 | p=13}}}}

[[File:Anonym Entsatz Wien 1683.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Battle of Vienna]], 12 September 1683]]

Eugene had no doubt as to where his new allegiance lay, and this loyalty was immediately put to the test. By September, the Imperial forces under the [[Charles V, Duke of Lorraine|Duke of Lorraine]], together with a powerful Polish army under King [[John III Sobieski]], were poised to strike the Sultan's army. On the morning of 12 September, the Christian forces drew up in line of battle on the south-eastern slopes of the [[Vienna Woods]], looking down on the massed enemy camp. The day-long [[Battle of Vienna]] resulted in the lifting of the 60-day siege, and the Sultan's forces were routed. Serving under Baden, as a twenty-year-old volunteer, Eugene distinguished himself in the battle, earning commendation from Lorraine and the Emperor; he later received the nomination for the colonelcy and was awarded the Kufstein regiment of dragoons by Leopold I.{{sfn | MacMunn | 1934 | p=32}}

==== Holy League ====
In March 1684, Leopold I formed the [[Great Turkish War#War of the Holy League (1683–1698)|Holy League]] with [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]] and [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] to counter the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] threat. For the next two years, Eugene continued to perform with distinction on campaign and establish himself as a dedicated, professional soldier; by the end of 1685, still only 22 years old, he was made a Major-General. Little is known of Eugene's life during these early campaigns. Contemporary observers make only passing comments of his actions, and his own surviving correspondence, largely to his cousin Victor Amadeus, are typically reticent about his own feelings and experiences.{{sfn | McKay | Baker | von Savoyen | 1977 | p=22}} Nevertheless, it is clear that Baden was impressed with Eugene's qualities—"This young man will, with time, occupy the place of those whom the world regards as great leaders of armies."{{sfn | MacMunn | 1934 | p=35}}
[[File:Reprise château Buda 1686.jpg|thumb|300px|Recapture of Buda castle in 1686 (Prince Eugene of Savoy on the second white horse from the right) by [[Gyula Benczúr]].]]
In June 1686, the Duke of Lorraine [[Battle of Buda (1686)|besieged Buda]] ([[Budapest]]), the centre of [[Ottoman Hungary]] and the old royal capital. After resisting for 78 days, the city fell on 2 September, and Turkish resistance collapsed throughout the region as far away as [[Principality of Transylvania (1571–1711)|Transylvania]] and Serbia. Further success followed in 1687, where, commanding a cavalry brigade, Eugene made an important contribution to the victory at the [[Battle of Mohács (1687)|Battle of Mohács]] on 12 August. Such was the scale of their defeat that the Ottoman army mutinied—a revolt which spread to [[Constantinople]]. The Grand Vizier, [[Sarı Süleyman Pasha]], was executed and Sultan [[Mehmed IV]], deposed.{{sfn | Setton | American Philosophical Society | 1991 | pp=287–289}} Once again, Eugene's courage earned him recognition from his superiors, who granted him the honour of personally conveying the news of victory to the Emperor in Vienna.{{sfn | MacMunn | 1934 | p=39|ps=: Leopold responded with a gift of a portrait of himself set in a diamond-encrusted frame}} For his services, Eugene was promoted to Lieutenant-General in November 1687. He was also gaining wider recognition. King [[Charles II of Spain]] bestowed upon him the [[Order of the Golden Fleece]], while his cousin, Victor Amadeus, provided him with money and two profitable abbeys in [[Principality of Piedmont|Piedmont]].{{sfn | McKay | Baker | von Savoyen | 1977 | p=27}} Eugene's military career suffered a temporary setback in 1688 when, on 6 September, the Prince suffered a severe wound to his knee by a musket ball during the [[Siege of Belgrade (1688)|Siege of Belgrade]], and did not return to active service until January 1689.{{sfn | McKay | Baker | von Savoyen | 1977 | p=27}}

==== Interlude in the west: Nine Years' War ====
{{Main|Nine Years' War}}
Just as [[Belgrade]] was falling to Imperial forces under Max Emmanuel in the east, French troops in the west were crossing the [[Rhine]] into the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Louis XIV had hoped that a show of force would lead to a quick resolution to his dynastic and territorial disputes with the princes of the Empire along his eastern border, but his intimidatory moves only strengthened German resolve, and in May 1689, Leopold I and the Dutch signed an offensive compact aimed at repelling French aggression.<ref>Lynn: ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714'', pp. 192–193</ref>

[[File:Max II. Emanuel.png|thumb|188x188px|[[Maximilian II Emanuel|Max Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria]], Eugene's early mentor before becoming his opponent in the War of the Spanish Succession, painting by [[Joseph Vivien]]|left]]

The [[Nine Years' War]] was professionally and personally frustrating for the prince. Initially fighting on the Rhine with Max Emmanuel—receiving a slight head wound at the [[Siege of Mainz (1689)|Siege of Mainz]] in 1689—Eugene subsequently transferred himself to Piedmont after Victor Amadeus joined the [[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|Alliance]] against France in 1690. Promoted to general of cavalry, he arrived in [[Turin]] with his friend the [[Charles, Prince of Commercy|Prince of Commercy]]; but it proved an inauspicious start. Against Eugene's advice, Amadeus insisted on engaging the French [[Battle of Staffarda|at Staffarda]] and suffered a serious defeat—only Eugene's handling of the Savoyard cavalry in retreat saved his cousin from disaster.{{sfn | McKay | Baker | von Savoyen | 1977 | p=33}} Eugene remained unimpressed with the men and their commanders throughout the war in Italy. "The enemy would long ago have been beaten", he wrote to Vienna, "if everyone had done their duty."{{sfn | Henderson | 1964 | p=32}} So contemptuous was he of the Imperial commander, [[Antonio Carafa (general)|Count Carafa]], he threatened to leave Imperial service.{{sfn | Henderson | 1964 | p=33}}

In Vienna, Eugene's attitude was dismissed as the arrogance of a young upstart, but so impressed was the Emperor by his passion for the Imperial cause, he promoted him to Field-Marshal in 1693.{{sfn | Henderson | 1964 | p=34|ps=: "His promotion had as much to do with the lack of good Imperial commanders as much as Eugene's proven ability thus far. There were more than 20 other Field-Marshals in Imperial service at that time.}} When Carafa's replacement, [[Aeneas de Caprara|Count Caprara]], was himself transferred in 1694, it seemed that Eugene's chance for command and decisive action had finally arrived. But Amadeus, doubtful of victory and now more fearful of Habsburg influence in Italy than he was of French, had begun secret dealings with Louis XIV aimed at extricating himself from the war. By 1696, the deal was done, and Amadeus transferred his troops and his loyalty to the enemy. Eugene was never to fully trust his cousin again; although he continued to pay due reverence to the Duke as head of his family, their relationship would forever after remain strained.{{sfn | McKay | Baker | von Savoyen | 1977 | p=37}}

Military honours in Italy undoubtedly belonged to the French commander [[Nicolas Catinat|Marshal Catinat]], but Eugene, the one Allied general determined on action and decisive results, did well to emerge from the Nine Years' War with an enhanced reputation.{{sfn | McKay | Baker | von Savoyen | 1977 | p=37}} With the signing of the [[Treaty of Ryswick]] in September/October 1697, the desultory war in the west was finally brought to an inconclusive end, and Leopold I could once again devote all his martial energies into defeating the Ottoman Turks in the east.

==== Battle of Zenta ====
{{Main|Battle of Zenta}}
The distractions of the war against Louis XIV had enabled the Turks to [[Siege of Belgrade (1690)|recapture Belgrade in 1690]]. In August 1691, the Austrians, under Louis of Baden, regained the advantage by heavily defeating the Turks at the [[Battle of Slankamen]] on the Danube, securing Habsburg possession of Hungary and Transylvania.{{sfn | Setton | American Philosophical Society | 1991 | p=390}} When Baden was transferred west to fight the French in 1692, his successors, first Caprara, then from 1696, [[Augustus II the Strong|Augustus the Strong]], the Elector of Saxony, proved incapable of delivering the final blow. On the advice of the President of the [[Imperial War Council]], [[Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg]], thirty-four-year old Eugene was offered supreme command of Imperial forces in April 1697.{{sfn | Spielman | 1977 | p=165|ps=: Augustus II left for [[Kraków]] to contest the election for the Polish throne, vacant since the death of John III Sobieski the previous year.}} This was Eugene's first truly independent command—no longer need he suffer under the excessively cautious generalship of Caprara and Carafa, or be thwarted by the deviations of Victor Amadeus. But on joining his army, he found it in a state of 'indescribable misery'.{{sfn | McKay | Baker | von Savoyen | 1977 | p=43}} Confident and self-assured, the Prince of Savoy (ably assisted by Commercy and [[Guido Starhemberg]]) set about restoring order and discipline.{{sfn | Spielman | 1977 | p=166}}

[[File:Portrait of Prince Eugene of Savoy (1663-1736).png|thumb|left|194x194px|''Portrait of Prince Eugene of Savoy (1663–1736)'' c. 1700. Flemish School.]] 
[[File:Battle of Zenta.png|thumb|upright|''Battle of Zenta'' by Jacques-Ignace Parrocel.]]

Leopold I had warned Eugene that "he should act with extreme caution, forgo all risks and avoid engaging the enemy unless he has overwhelming strength and is practically certain of being completely victorious",<ref name="Wheatcroft 2009 p. 230">{{cite book | last=Wheatcroft | first=A. | title=The Enemy at the Gate: Habsburgs, Ottomans and the Battle for Europe | publisher=Random House | year=2009 | isbn=978-1-4090-8682-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HCmwFM8_QCoC&pg=PA230 |page=230}}</ref> but when the Imperial commander learnt of Sultan [[Mustafa II]]'s march on Transylvania, Eugene abandoned all ideas of a defensive campaign and moved to intercept the Turks as they crossed the River [[Tisza]] at [[Battle of Zenta|Zenta]] on 11 September 1697.

It was late in the day before the Imperial army struck. The Ottoman cavalry had already crossed the river so Eugene decided to attack immediately, arranging his men in a half-moon formation.{{sfn | Coxe | 1807 | pp=455–456}} The vigour of the assault wrought terror and confusion among the Turks, and by nightfall, the battle was won. For the loss of some 2,000 dead and wounded, Eugene had inflicted an overwhelming defeat upon the enemy with approximately 25,000 Turks killed—including the Grand Vizier, [[Elmas Mehmed Pasha]], the pashas of Adana, Anatolia, and Bosnia, plus more than thirty aghas of the [[Janissary|Janissaries]], [[sipahi]]s, and silihdars, as well as seven horsetails (symbols of high authority), 100 pieces of heavy artillery, 423 banners, and the revered seal which the sultan always entrusted to the Grand Vizier on an important campaign, Eugene had annihilated the Ottoman army and brought to an end the War of the Holy League.{{sfn | Setton | American Philosophical Society | 1991 | pp=401–402|ps=: Eugene lost 401 men and 28 officers killed, and 133 officers and 1,435 men were wounded.}} Although the Ottomans lacked western organization and training, the Savoyard prince had revealed his tactical skill, his capacity for bold decision, and his ability to inspire his men to excel in battle against a dangerous foe.{{sfn | Henderson | 1964 | p=43}}

After a brief terror-raid into [[Bosnia Eyalet|Ottoman Bosnia]], culminating in the [[Sacking of Sarajevo|sack of Sarajevo]], Eugene returned to [[Vienna]] in November to a triumphal reception.{{sfn | McKay | Baker | von Savoyen | 1977 | p=46}} His victory at Zenta had turned him into a European hero, and with victory came reward. Land in Hungary, given him by the Emperor, yielded a good income, enabling the Prince to cultivate his newly acquired tastes in art and architecture (see below); but for all his new-found wealth and property, he was, nevertheless, without personal ties or family commitments. Of his four brothers, only one was still alive at this time. His fourth brother, Emmanuel, had died aged 14 in 1676; his third, Louis Julius (already mentioned) had died on active service in 1683, and his second brother, Philippe, died of smallpox in 1693. Eugene's remaining brother, [[Louis Thomas, Count of Soissons|Louis Thomas]]—ostracized for incurring the displeasure of Louis XIV—travelled Europe in search of a career, before arriving in Vienna in 1699. With Eugene's help, Louis found employment in the Imperial army, only to be killed in action against the French in 1702. Of Eugene's sisters, the youngest had died in childhood. The other two, Marie Jeanne-Baptiste and Louise Philiberte, led dissolute lives. Expelled from France, Marie joined her mother in Brussels, before eloping with a renegade priest to [[Geneva]], living with him unhappily until her premature death in 1705. Of Louise, little is known after her early salacious life in Paris, but in due course, she lived for a time in a convent in Savoy before her death in 1726.{{sfn | Henderson | 1964 | pp=50–51}}

The Battle of Zenta proved to be the decisive victory in the long war against the Turks. With Leopold I's interests now focused on Spain and the imminent death of Charles II, the Emperor terminated the conflict with the Sultan; he signed the [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] on 26 January 1699.{{sfn | Coxe | 1807 | p=457}}