Editing Pygmalion effect (section)

== Rosenthal–Jacobson study ==
[[Robert Rosenthal (psychologist)|Robert Rosenthal]] and [[Lenore Jacobson]]'s [[Pygmalion in the Classroom|study]] showed that children's performance was enhanced if [[teacher]]s were led to expect enhanced performance from children.<ref name="Rosenthal-1968">{{Cite Q|Q29544249}}</ref> By the same token, if teachers were led to expect lower performance from children, then the children's performance would be diminished. The authors purported that the study's results supported the hypothesis that performance can be positively or negatively influenced by the expectations of others. This phenomenon is called the [[observer-expectancy effect]]. Rosenthal argued that biased expectancies could affect reality and create self-fulfilling prophecies.<ref name="RosenthalJacobson1992">{{cite book|author1=Rosenthal, Robert|author2=Jacobson, Lenore|author-link1=Robert Rosenthal (psychologist)|author-link2=Lenore Jacobson|title=Pygmalion in the classroom : teacher expectation and pupils' intellectual development.|date=1992|publisher=Crown House Pub.|location=Bancyfelin, Carmarthen, Wales|isbn=978-1904424062|edition=Newly expanded}}</ref>

All students in a single California elementary school were given a disguised [[Intelligence quotient|IQ test]] at the beginning of the study. These scores were not disclosed to teachers. Teachers were told that some of their students (about 20% of the school chosen at random) could be expected to be "intellectual bloomers" that year, doing better than expected in comparison to their classmates. The bloomers' names were made known to the teachers. At the end of the study, all students were again tested with the same IQ test used at the beginning of the study.  All six grades in both experimental and control groups showed a mean gain in IQ from before the test to after the test.  However, first- and second-graders showed statistically significant gains favoring the experimental group of "intellectual bloomers." This led to the conclusion that teacher expectations, particularly for the youngest children, can influence student achievement. Rosenthal believed that even attitude or mood could positively affect the students when the teacher was made aware of the "bloomers." The teacher may pay closer attention to and even treat the child differently in times of difficulty.

Rosenthal predicted that [[elementary school]] teachers may subconsciously behave in ways that facilitate and encourage the students' success. When finished, Rosenthal theorized that future studies could be implemented to find teachers who would encourage their students naturally without changing their teaching methods. Rosenthal and Jacobson's study of the Pygmalion effect was criticized for both weak methodology and lack of replicability (see ''[[Pygmalion in the Classroom]]'').

The prior research that motivated this study was conducted in 1911 by psychologists regarding the case of [[Clever Hans]], a horse that gained notoriety because it was supposed to be able to read, spell, and solve math problems by using its hoof to answer. Many skeptics suggested that questioners and observers were unintentionally signaling Clever Hans. For instance, whenever Clever Hans was asked a question the observers' demeanor usually elicited a certain behavior from the subject that in turn confirmed their expectations. For example, Clever Hans would be given a math problem to solve, and the audience would get very tense the closer he tapped his foot to the right number, thus giving Hans the clue he needed to tap the correct number of times.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33936/33936-h/33936-h.htm#CHAPTER_IV |title=Clever Hans (The Horse of Mr. von Osten)|chapter=CHAPTER IV LABORATORY TESTS |author=Oskar Pfungst|others=Translator: Carl L. Rahn|year=2010 |via=Gutenberg.org}}</ref>