Editing Rainbow/PUSH (section)

== PUSH ==
[[File:20070906 Rainbow-PUSH Headquarters.JPG|200px|thumb|The Rainbow/PUSH Headquarters in the [[Kenwood, Chicago|Kenwood]] [[Community areas of Chicago|community area]] of [[Chicago]].]]
Operation PUSH, an [[acronym]] for People United to Save (later Serve) Humanity, was an organization that advocated black [[self-help]] and achieved a broad audience for its [[Modern American liberalism|liberal]] stances on social justice and civil rights.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-907911/National-Rainbow-Coalition|access-date=September 5, 2007|title=National Rainbow Coalition (American organization)|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica online|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.}}</ref>

Operation PUSH's origins can be traced to a factional split in Operation Breadbasket, an affiliate of the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]].<ref name=EOCPUSH>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/934.html|access-date=September 5, 2007|year=2005|publisher=Chicago Historical Society|encyclopedia=Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago|author=Ralph, James|title=Operation PUSH}}</ref> In 1966, [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], the head of the SCLC, appointed Jackson to head the Chicago chapter of Operation Breadbasket, which became a coalition of black ministers and entrepreneurs.<ref name=JPO />

After 1968, Jackson increasingly clashed with King's successor at SCLC, Ralph Abernathy. The break became complete in December 1971 when Abernathy suspended Jackson for "administrative improprieties and repeated acts of violation of organizational policy." Jackson resigned from Operation Breadbasket, called together his allies, and formed Operation PUSH.

From its inception, Jackson called its membership a "Rainbow Coalition."<ref name=JPO>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,879017,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101022210347/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,879017,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 22, 2010|title=Jackson PUSHes On|access-date=May 1, 2008|date=January 3, 1972|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> This concept and phrase was originally created by the 1968 Chicago Black Panther leader [[Fred Hampton]]. Hampton used it to describe the [[Rainbow Coalition (Fred Hampton)|multiethnic revolutionary federation]] he founded. Jackson was not part of Hampton's Rainbow Coalition, and had a difficult relationship with the Panthers. Some former members of Hampton's coalition resent Jackson for using the name, partly because Jackson's politics are [[reformist]], and partly because Jackson [[copyrighted]] the name, preventing others from using it.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w48RL7fwRroC&q=hampton%2C+rainbow%2C+jesse+jackson&pg=PA203|title=From the Bullet to the Ballot: The Illinois Chapter of the Black Panther Party and Racial Coalition Politics in Chicago|last=Williams|first=Jakobi|date=2013|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=9780807838167|language=en}}</ref>

Although money was a problem at first, initial backing came from [[Manhattan Borough President]] [[Percy Sutton]], [[Gary, Indiana]] Mayor [[Richard Hatcher]], [[Aretha Franklin]], [[Jim Brown]], and [[Ossie Davis]].<ref name=JPO />

[[File:THE REV. JESSE JACKSON SPEAKS ON A RADIO BROADCAST FROM THE HEADQUARTERS OF OPERATION PUSH AT ITS ANNUAL CONVENTION.... - NARA - 556253.jpg|thumb|[[Jesse Jackson]] speaks at 1973 PUSH National Convention]]
The organizational meeting of PUSH was in the Chicago home of [[T.R.M. Howard]], a prominent black doctor and community leader on the South Side. Before he moved to Chicago in 1956, Howard developed a national reputation as a [[Mississippi]] civil rights leader, [[surgeon]], and [[entrepreneur]]. He served on PUSH's board of directors and chaired the finance committee.<ref>David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, ''Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 209–10.</ref>

Through PUSH Jackson was able to continue pursuing the same economic objectives that Operation Breadbasket had. In addition, his organization expanded into social and political development for blacks in Chicago and nationwide. The 1970s saw various tactics to pursue the organization's objectives including direct action campaigns, weekly radio broadcasts,<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://rainbowpush.org/broadcasts/
| title=TV and radio broadcasts
| work=RainbowPUSH Coalition website
| access-date=January 29, 2009
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071027091013/http://www.rainbowpush.org/broadcasts/ |archive-date = October 27, 2007}}</ref> and awards, through which Jackson protected black homeowners, workers, and businesses, and honored prominent blacks in the US and abroad.

Jackson also started a campaign against legalizing abortion after ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' was decided in 1973. PUSH was concerned with minority youth reading,<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,911747,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220145316/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,911747,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 20, 2011|title=Needed: Strong Soldiers|access-date=May 1, 2008|date=May 22, 1976|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> and championed education through PUSH-Excel, a spin-off program that emphasized keeping inner-city youths in school while assisting them with job placement.<ref name=GCL>{{cite web|url=http://gale.com/free_resources/bhm/bio/jackson_j.htm|access-date=September 7, 2007|publisher=Gale Cengage Learning|title=Black History: Jesse Jackson}}</ref> The program, which persuaded inner-city youth to pledge in writing to study two hours per night and involved parental monitoring,<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,915331-10,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102114304/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,915331-10,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 2, 2012|title=The American Underclass (page 10)|access-date=May 1, 2008|date=August 29, 1977|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> impressed [[Jimmy Carter]], whose administration became a large sponsor after [[Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare]] [[Joseph Califano]] and [[Secretary of Labor]] [[Ray Marshall]] courted Jackson.<ref name=ME /><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,967157-9,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102114315/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,967157-9,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 2, 2012|title=Taking Jesse Seriously (page 9)|access-date=May 1, 2008|date=April 11, 1988|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|author=Shapiro, Walter}}</ref>

[[File:A SENIOR CITIZENS' MARCH TO PROTEST INFLATION, UNEMPLOYMENT AND HIGH TAXES STOPPED ALONG LAKE SHORE DRIVE IN CHICAGO... - NARA - 556256.jpg|thumb|[[Lake Shore Drive]] Senior Citizens March (July 1973).]]
The organization was very successful at committing major corporations with large presences in the black community to adopt affirmative action programs in which they hired more black executives and supervisors and to buy from black suppliers, wholesalers, and distributors.<ref name=ME>{{cite web|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557067/Jesse_Jackson.html|access-date=September 7, 2007|title=Jesse Jackson|publisher=Microsoft Corporation|work=Encarta|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028070133/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557067/Jesse_Jackson.html|archive-date=October 28, 2009|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The organization employed prayer [[vigil]]s to call attention to issues.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,915201,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215120328/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,915201,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 15, 2008|title=A Fallout Between Friends|access-date=May 1, 2008|date=August 8, 1977|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> It opposed [[Ronald Reagan]]'s [[workfare]] initiative requiring that [[welfare spending|welfare]] recipients work for part of their benefits.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,952924,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080731063829/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,952924,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 31, 2008|title=Putting the Poor to Work|access-date=May 1, 2008|date=March 23, 1981|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref>

The organization staged several boycotts, including early 1980s boycotts of [[Anheuser Busch]] and [[Coca-Cola]] as well as a 1986 boycott of [[CBS]] television affiliates.<ref name=S>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949888,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222002148/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949888,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 22, 2008|title=Sniping|access-date=May 1, 2008|date=December 19, 1983|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|author=Thomas, Evan}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,961114,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408133651/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,961114,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 8, 2008|title=When Push Gives a Shove|access-date=May 1, 2008|date=April 14, 1986|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|author=Kelly, James}}</ref> The boycotts became so well known that at one point [[David Duke]] supporters referred to a boycott of [[Nike, Inc.]] as oppression of whites by blacks.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,971258,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215153241/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,971258,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 15, 2008|title=David Duke's Addictive Politics|access-date=May 1, 2008|date=October 1, 1990|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|author=Wills, Garry}}</ref> Nike [[spokesperson]] [[Michael Jordan]] disavowed the boycott.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,971010,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215162417/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,971010,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 15, 2008|title=Who's Boycotting Whom?|access-date=May 1, 2008|date=August 27, 1990|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|author=Gray, Paul}}</ref> The boycotts of Budweiser and Coke as well as one against [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]] were touted for having won minority job concessions from white businesses.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,954291-7,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091020172027/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,954291-7,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 20, 2009|title=Pride and Prejudice (Page 7)|access-date=May 1, 2008|date=May 7, 1984|publisher=[[Time Inc.]]|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|author=Thomas, Evan}}</ref>