Editing Rector (academia) (section)

==Europe==
{{anchor|magnificus}}
=== Austria ===
In a few "Crown lands" of the Austrian Empire, one seat in the ''[[Landtag]]'' (regional legislature of semi-feudal type) was reserved for the rector of the capital's university, notably: Graz in [[Steiermark]] (Styria), [[Innsbruck]] in [[Tyrol (state)|Tirol]], Wien (Vienna) in [[Nieder-Österreich]] (Lower Austria); in [[Bohemia]], two Rectors had seats in the equivalent Landesvertretung.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Today, Austrian universities are headed by a Rectorate consisting of one Rector (elected by the Universitätsrat) and 3-5 additional Vizerectors. The Rector is the CEO of the university.<ref>[[:de:Universitätsgesetz 2002]]</ref>{{Circular reference|date=January 2024}}

=== Belgium ===
The head of Belgian universities is called a ''president'', ''recteur'' (French-speaking universities), ''rector'' (Dutch-speaking universities), previously ''rector magnificus'' (men) or ''rectrix magnifica'' (women).

===Czech Republic===
The heads of [[List of universities in the Czech Republic|Czech universities]] are called the ''rektor''. The rector acts in the name of the university and decides the university's affairs unless prohibited by law. The rector is nominated by the University Academic Senate and appointed by the [[President of the Czech Republic]]. The nomination must be agreed by a [[Plurality (voting)|simple majority]] of all senators, while a dismissal must be agreed by at least three fifths of all senators. The vote to elect or repeal a rector is secret. The term of office is four years and a person may hold it for at most two consecutive terms.

The rector appoints vice-rectors (''pro-rektor''), who act as deputies to the extent determined by the Rector. Rectors' salaries are determined directly by the Minister of Education.

Among the most important rectors of Czech universities were reformer [[Jan Hus]], physician [[Jan Jesenius]], theologian [[Rodrigo de Arriaga]] and representative of [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] [[Josef Vratislav Monse]]. [[Jiřina Popelová]] ([[Palacký University of Olomouc]]) became the first female Rector in 1950.

The rectors are addressed "Your Magnificence Rector" (''"Vaše Magnificence pane rektore"'').

===Denmark===
In Danish, ''rektor'' is the title used in referring to the heads of universities, [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasiums]], schools of commerce and construction, etc. Generally ''rektor'' may be used for the head of any educational institution above the primary school level, where the head is commonly referred to as a 'skoleinspektør' (Headmaster; Inspector of the school). In universities, the second-ranked official of governance is known as ''prorektor''.

=== Finland ===
In Finland, the head of a primary school or secondary schools is called a rector (''rehtori'') provided the school is of sufficient size in terms of faculty and students, otherwise the title is headmaster (''koulunjohtaja''). The head of some Finnish universities is called chancellor (''kansleri'').

===Germany===
The head of a German university is called either ''Rektor'' (rector) or ''Präsident'' (president). The difference is usually that a ''Rektor'' is elected by the Senate from among the professors of the university (which is the traditional method of choosing the head of a German university), while a ''Präsident'' need be neither a professor nor a member of the university (or of any university) prior to appointment. The ''Rektor'' is traditionally addressed as ''Magnifizenz''. The rector forms a collegiate leadership body together with the pro-rectors (''Prorektor'') and the university's chancellor (''Kanzler'') - collectively the rectorate (''Rektorat''). The rectorate is usually aided by several advisors (''Referent'') who provide advice on specific topics and take over responsibilities in the preparation of decisions, roughly comparable to an associate Pro-Vice-Chancellor in the British academic system.

''Rektor'' is also the official title of the principal/headmaster of an elementary school; the deputies are called ''Konrektor''.  In earlier times, the title ''Rektor'' was also used for the head of a [[Gymnasium (Germany)|Gymnasium]]. Today, these teachers usually hold the title of ''Oberstudiendirektor'' ("Senior Director of Studies").

===Iceland===
The ''rektor'' is term used for the headmaster or headmistress of Icelandic universities and of some [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasia]].

===Italy===
[[File:Renzi Dionigi 2015.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Then Rector of the [[Bologna University]], [[Ivano Dionigi]], with then Prime Minister of Italy [[Matteo Renzi]], in 2015.]]
In [[Italy]] the rector is the head of the university and ''Rappresentante Legale'' (Legal representative) of the university. The rector is elected by an electoral body composed of all ''Professori ordinari ed associati'' (full and associate professors), the two highest ranks of the Italian university faculty, all the ''Ricercatori'' (lowest rank of departments) and representatives of the staff, students and PhD students.

The term of a ''rettore'' is now six years, in accordance with the new national regulation and the ''statuto'' (constitution of the university).

The Rettore is styled and formally greeted as ''Magnifico Rettore'' (Magnificent Rector).

===Netherlands===
In the Netherlands, the rector is the principal of a high school. The rector is supported by conrectors (deputy rectors who can take his place).

In Dutch universities, the ''Rector Magnificus''  is responsible for the scientific vision and quality of the university. The ''rector magnificus'' is one of the members of the executive board of a university. The ''rector magnificus'' is a [[full professor]]. The ceremonial responsibilities of the ''rector magnificus ''are to open the [[academic year]], and to preside over the ceremonial PhD defenses and inaugural lectures of newly appointed (full) professors. During PhD defenses the rector is usually replaced by another full professor who is acting rector during the session.

===Norway===
A rector ({{langx|no|rektor}}), in the context of academia, is the democratically elected head of a university or university college. The rector is the highest official of the university, and is traditionally elected among the institution's professorship, originally by all the (full) professors and in modern times by all academic employees, the students and the non-academic employees. The rector is traditionally the head of the ''Collegium Academicum'', which has been renamed the university board in the 2000s, and is also the university's chief executive and ceremonial head. The elected deputy of the rector is known as pro-rector ({{langx|no|prorektor}}). Some institutions also have vice rectors, who are appointed by the rector and subordinate to the rector and pro-rector.

Traditionally, Norwegian universities and colleges had democratic elections for the rector and pro-rector positions. Since 2016, the institutions may choose to have an elected or an appointed rector.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2005-04-01-15/KAPITTEL_3-2#%C2%A710-2|title=Lov om universiteter og høyskoler (universitets- og høyskoleloven) - Kapittel 10. Rektor. Administrerende direktør - Lovdata|website=lovdata.no}}</ref> Universities and colleges usually have a ''university director'' or ''college director'', who is the head of the administration (i.e., the non-academic employees) and subordinate to the rectorate.

===Poland===
In [[Poland]], the rector ({{langx|pl|rektor}}) serves as the elected head of a university or university college. In military and military-type higher education institutions, the equivalent position is referred to as commander ({{langx|pl|komendant}}). The rector is the highest official of the [[university]]. Rector of the university can be a person with at least a [[doctor (title)|doctoral]] degree, employed by the university as the main place of work. Rector is referred to as Jego/Jej Magnificencja (en. His/Her Magnificence) (abbreviation: JM). The outfit of rector is red or purple coat (robe) with [[Stoat|ermine]] fur, often with a [[scepter]] and a decorative string of symbols of the university. Deputy rectors ({{langx|pl|prorektor}}) at official ceremonies are dressed in the same [[gown]], but with fewer decorations (usually without the fur). Rectors of military universities wear only an officer's uniform and a necklace with symbols of the university.

As of 2008, the term of office of the rector of public universities lasts for four years (previously three years), beginning on 1 September in an election year and ending on 31 August of the year in which the term ends. A person may not be elected to serve as rector for more than two consecutive terms. In the case of private universities the rule is regulated by [[university]] statute.

===Portugal===
In [[Portugal]], the Rector ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Reitor'' male or ''Reitora'' female), frequently addressed as ''Magnificent Rector'' (''Magnífico Reitor'' in Portuguese), is the elected highest official of each [[List of universities and colleges in Portugal|university]], governing and representing the university.
Those universities whose foundation has been historically approved by the Pope, as e.g. the rector of the [[University of Coimbra]], the oldest Portuguese university, is referred to as ''Magnífico Reitor (Rector's name)'' ("Rector Magnificus (Rector's Name)"). The others are referred to as ''Excelentíssimo Senhor Reitor''.  The rector of a university is helped by vice-rectors and by pro-rectors, with different responsibilities. Until 1974, the director of each [[Lyceum#Portugal|lyceum]] (high school) also had the title of Rector.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}

===Russia===
In [[Russia]], the rector ({{langx|ru|Ректор}}) as a term for a university chancellor introduced in 1961. Before 1961 university chancellor had title "director" ({{langx|ru|Директор}}).

===Spain===
In Spain, all Rectors must be addressed as ''Señor Rector Magnífico'' according to the law (Ley Orgánica 4/2007), but the Rector of the [[University of Salamanca]], the oldest on the Iberian Peninsula, is usually styled according to academic protocol as ''Excelentísimo e Ilustrísimo Señor Profesor Doctor [[Don (honorific)|Don]] (Rector's name), Rector Magnífico de la Universidad de Salamanca'' ("The Most Excellent and Most Illustrious Lord Professor Doctor Don (Rector's name), ''Rector Magnificus'' of the University of Salamanca").

In [[Spain]], ''Rector'' or ''Rector Magnífico'' (magnific rector, from Latin ''Rector Magnificus'') is the highest administrative and educational office in a university, equivalent to that of president or chancellor of an English-speaking university but holding all the powers of a vice-chancellor; they are thus the head of the academy at universities. Formally styled as ''Excelentísimo e Ilustrísimo Señor Profesor Doctor Don N, Rector Magnífico de la Universidad de X'' ("Most Excellent and Illustrious Lord Professor Doctor Don N, Rector Magnificus of the University of X"), it is an office of high dignity within Spanish society, usually being highly respected. It is not strange to see them appear in the media, especially when some academic-related subject is being discussed and their opinion is requested.

Spanish rectors are chosen from within the body of university full [[professor]]s (''Catedráticos'' in Spanish); it is compulsory for anyone aspiring to become a rector to have been a doctor for at least six years before his election, and to have achieved professor status, holding it in the same university for which he is running. Usually, when running for election, the rector will need to have chosen the vice-rectors (''vicerrectores'' in Spanish), who will occupy several sub-offices in the university. Rectors are elected directly by free and secret universal suffrage of all the members of the university, including students, lecturers, readers, researchers, and civil servants. However, the weight of the vote in each academic sector is different: the total student vote usually represents 20% of the whole, no matter how many students there are; the votes of the entire group made up of professors and readers (members of what used to be known as the ''Claustro'' (''[[cloister]]'')) usually count for about 40-50% of the total; lecturers, researchers (including Ph.D. students and others) and non-doctoral teachers, about 20% of the total; and the remainder (usually some 5-10%) is left for non-scholarly workers (people in administration, etc.) in the university. Spanish law allows those percentages to be changed according to the situation of each university, or even not to have a direct election system. Indeed, in a few universities the Rector is chosen indirectly; the members of the modern ''Claustro'' (a sort of electoral college or parliament in which all the above-mentioned groups are represented) is chosen first, and then the Claustro selects the Rector.

Rectors hold their office for four years before another election is held, and there is no limit to the number of re-election terms. However, only the most charismatic and respected rectors have been able to hold their office for more than two or three terms. Of those, some have been notable [[Spanish people|Spanish]] scholars, such as [[Basque people|Basque]] writer [[Miguel de Unamuno]], Rector of the [[University of Salamanca]] from 1901 until 1936.

===Sweden===
''Rektor'' is the title for the highest-ranked administrative and educational leader for an academic institution, such as a primary school, secondary school, private school, high school, college or university. The ''rektors'' of state-run colleges and universities are formally appointed by the government, i.e. the cabinet, but upon the advice of the concerned institution's board, and usually following some sort of democratic process at the concerned institution. The adjunct of a ''rektor'' at a university is called a ''prorektor'' and is appointed by the institution's board. Some institutions also have ''vicerektorer'' (vice rectors), who are appointed by the ''rektor'' to carry out a sub-set of the ''rektor's'' tasks. A ''vicerektor'' is subordinate to the ''rektor'' and ''prorektor''.

In the older universities, [[Uppsala university]] and [[Lund university]], the ''rektor'' is titled ''rector magnificus'' (men), or ''rectrix magnifica'' (women). Younger universities have in more recent years started using the Latin honorary title in formal situations, such as in honorary speeches or graduation ceremonies.

The University Chancellor of Sweden was until 2017 the title of the head of the government accrediting agency, the [[National Agency for Higher Education]]. From 2017, this position carries the title Director General which is the usual title of the head of a government agency. The people recruited to the position have in later times always been former ''rektors'' of a Swedish university. The position does not include leadership of a university.

Universities and colleges usually have a ''Universitetsdirektör'' or ''Förvaltningschef'', who is the head of the administration (i.e., the non-academic employees) and subordinate to the rectorate.

===Switzerland===
The heads of the [[universities in Switzerland]], usually elected by the college of professors, are titled rector (''Rektor'', ''recteur'').

===United Kingdom===
====England====
In England, most universities are headed by a chancellor (a ceremonial position) and a vice-chancellor (the academic head). 

The title of Rector is used at some collegiate universities to refer to the [[head of college]] of some colleges.
* The [[University of Oxford]], [[Lincoln College, Oxford|Lincoln College]] and [[Exeter College, Oxford|Exeter College]] are headed by rectors.
* At [[Durham University]], [[St Chad's College]] the rector is the titular head (a position held ''ex officio'' by the Dean of Durham Cathedral), while the academic head is the principal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stchads.ac.uk/about/people/governingbody/|title=Visitor, Rector & Governors|website=St Chad's College|access-date=16 March 2023}}</ref>

In addition, a few universities have used rector as the title of their head:
* At [[Imperial College London]] the [[President of Imperial College London|head]] was called the rector, until this was split into a [[Provost (education)|provost]] and "president and rector" in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/109629/imperial-college-london-announces-plans-leadership/|title= Imperial College London announces plans for new leadership|date=30 April 2012|website=Imperial College|access-date=16 March 2023}}</ref> In 2014, [[Alice Gast]] was announced as simply president, replacing [[Keith O'Nions]] who has been "president and rector".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/imperial-colleges-new-president-to-be-alice-gast/2010175.article|title=Imperial College's new president to be Alice Gast|date=3 January 2014|work=Times Higher Education|author=Holly Else}}</ref> An amendment to the university's statutes in November 2014 formally replaced the title of rector with that of president.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/media/imperial-college/administration-and-support-services/secretariat/public/college-governance/charters-statutes-ordinances-regulations/charters-and-statutes/CHARTER---July-2007--(Rev--Nov-2014).pdf|date=5 November 2014|title=Charter and Statutes 2007|at=Explanatory Note|access-date=16 March 2023}}</ref>
* At [[Liverpool Hope University]], the head of the university has the title of "vice-chancellor and rector".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hope.ac.uk/aboutus/governance/leadershipandmanagement/|title=Leadership and management|at=Vice-Chancellor & Rector|website=Liverpool Hope University|access-date=16 March 2023}}</ref>

Prior to their conversion to universities, polytechnics often had the rector as the head of the establishment; following their transition to universities, the rector became the vice-chancellor.

====Scotland====
=====Ancient universities=====
{{Main|Ancient university governance in Scotland}}
In Scotland, the position of rector exists in the four [[Ancient universities of Scotland|ancient universities]] ([[University of St Andrews|St Andrews]], [[University of Glasgow|Glasgow]], [[University of Aberdeen|Aberdeen]] and [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]]) as well as at [[University of Dundee|Dundee]], which took its governance systems from its early connections to the University of St Andrews.<ref name="Rector intro 2007">{{cite web |url=https://www.abdn.ac.uk/documents/scottish-university-rector.pdf |title=The Scottish University Rector. Introduction to the role of University Rector in Scotland |date=2007 |access-date=13 December 2015}}</ref>

The current office of Rector, sometimes termed ''Lord Rector'', was instituted by the [[Universities (Scotland) Act 1858]], passed by the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]].<ref name="act_1858">{{Cite legislation UK|type=act|year=1858|chapter=83|act=Universities (Scotland) Act 1858}}</ref> With the Universities (Scotland) Act 1889 requiring an election for the Rector every 3 years in the [[ancient universities of Scotland|ancient universities]].<ref>{{Cite legislation UK|type=act|year=1889|chapter=55|act=Universities (Scotland) Act 1889}}</ref> The rector is the third-ranking official of university governance and is elected every three years by [[matriculation|matriculated]] students at Aberdeen, Dundee, Glasgow and St Andrews, and by both the students and the staff at Edinburgh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ed.ac.uk/governance-strategic-planning/governance/university-court/standing-orders|title=Standing Orders of the University Court {{!}} The University of Edinburgh|website=www.ed.ac.uk|language=en|date=12 May 2014|publisher=University of Edinburgh|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/media/court_rector_role.pdf |title='The University Rector' |access-date=2010-09-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813193010/http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/media/court_rector_role.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="scottish_rector">{{Cite web|url=https://www.abdn.ac.uk/documents/scottish-university-rector.pdf|title=The Scottish University Rector - Introduction to the role of University Rector in Scotland|date=2007|website=www.abdn.ac.uk|publisher=Scottish Rectors' Group|access-date=30 April 2017}}</ref> Until the [[Higher Education Governance (Scotland) Act 2016]] came into force the rector chaired meetings of the [[university court]], the governing body of the university, but since 2016 the rector only opens and closes court meetings with the Senior Lay Member chairing the business of the meeting.<ref name=standrews-20240415>{{cite web |url=https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/assets/university/about/documents/governance/court/independent-investigation-29-July-2024.pdf |title=Independent Investigation |last=Ross |first=Morag |website=University of St Andrews |date=15 April 2024 |access-date=3 August 2024}}</ref>

The [[titular ruler|titular head]] of an ancient university in Scotland is the [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]], who appoints a Vice-Chancellor to deputise in the awarding of [[academic degree|degrees]]. The [[University Principal|Principal]] of each university is, by [[Convention (norm)|convention]], appointed as Vice-Chancellor, however the position of Vice-Chancellor does not confer any other powers or responsibility on the Principal. The authority to serve as chief executive of each university is vested in the office of Principal, who holds both offices referred to as ''Principal and Vice-Chancellor''.<ref name="Principal and VC">{{cite web|url=https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/about/governance/key-officials/principal/|title=University of St Andrews: The Principal and Vice-Chancellor|publisher=University of St Andrews}}</ref><ref name="act_1858"/>

The role of the rector is considered by many students{{By whom|Which students think this?=|date=May 2017}} to be integral to their ability to shape the universities' agenda, and one of the main functions of the rector is to represent the interests of the student body. To some extent the office of rector has evolved into more of a figurehead role, with a significant number of celebrities and personalities elected as rectors, such as [[Stephen Fry]] and [[Lorraine Kelly]] at [[Rector of the University of Dundee|Dundee]], [[Clarissa Dickson Wright]] at [[Rector of the University of Aberdeen|Aberdeen]], and [[John Cleese]] and [[Frank Muir]] at [[Rector of the University of St Andrews|St. Andrews]], and political figures, such as [[Mordechai Vanunu]] at [[Rector of the University of Glasgow|Glasgow]]. In many cases, particularly with high-profile rectors, attendance at the university court in person is rare;{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}} the Rector nominates an individual (normally a member of the student body) with the title of ''Rector's Assessor'', who sits as a voting member of the University Court.<ref name="assessor">{{Cite web|url=https://www.yourunion.net/voice/rectorelection/assessor/|title=Rector's Assessor|website=www.yourunion.net|publisher=University of St Andrews Students' Association|access-date=30 April 2017}}</ref>

The [[Rt. Hon.]] [[Gordon Brown]], the former [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]], was [[Rector of the University of Edinburgh]] while a student there, but since then most universities have amended their procedures to disqualify currently matriculated students from standing for election.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ourhistory.is.ed.ac.uk/index.php/Election_of_Gordon_Brown_as_Rector,_1972|title=Election of Gordon Brown as Rector, 1972 - Our History|website=ourhistory.is.ed.ac.uk|publisher=University of Edinburgh|language=en|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref>

{{As of|April 2025}}, the [[rector of the University of Aberdeen]] is [[Iona Fyfe]], a Scottish folk singer. The [[rector of the University of Dundee]] is arts consultant [[Keith Harris (artist manager)|Keith Harris]]. The [[Rector of the University of Edinburgh|rector]] of [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]] is [[Simon Fanshawe]]. The [[rector of the University of Glasgow]] is [[Ghassan Abu-Sittah]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-glasgow-west-39346656 |title=Aamer Anwar elected as new Glasgow University rector |work=BBC News |date=21 March 2017}}</ref> Elected in November 2020, the [[rector of the University of St Andrews]] is Stella Maris.

=====High schools=====
Some Scottish high school/[[secondary school]] have a [[head teacher]] whose official title is ''Rector'', an example being [[Bell Baxter High School]] in [[Cupar]], [[Fife]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbhs-online.co.uk/schoolcontacts.html|title=Contacts {{!}} Bell-Baxter High School|website=www.bbhs-online.co.uk|publisher=Bell-Baxter High School|language=en|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref>

===Central and Eastern Europe and Turkey===
The rector is the head of most universities and other higher educational institutions in at least parts of Central and Eastern Europe, such as Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Romania, North Macedonia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Turkey, Hungary and Ukraine. The rector's deputies are known as "pro-rectors". Individual departments of a university (called [[Faculty (division)|faculties]]) are headed by [[Dean (education)|deans]].