Editing Remote work (section)

==History==
The practice of working at home has been documented for centuries. Management had to rely on trust and control to successfully manage distributed work. In addition to dispersed operations that relied heavily on a combination of explicit information and detailed record-keeping, more tacit and situated knowledge developed through socialization. For example, the Hudson's Bay Company showed a variety of control mechanisms including selection techniques, information requirements, and direct local oversight through its distributed practices of [[socialization]], [[communication]], and participation. Managers found that "common sense" was not enough to encourage everyone to comply.<ref>{{cite book |last=Michael |first=O'Leary |chapter=Distributed work Over the Centuries: Trust and Control in the Hudson's Bay Company, 1670-1826 |title=Distributed Work |year=2002 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Mass |isbn=978-0262083058 |pages=27–54 |url=https://people.ece.ubc.ca/leei/519/2002-hbc-DistributedWork.pdf?ref=blog.dust.tt |editor-first=Pamela |editor-last=Hinds}}</ref>

The [[1911 United Kingdom census|England and Wales census of 1911]] included a question about each resident person's employment (if any) and included a question about whether they worked "at home".<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.historyworkshop.org.uk/nationalism-citizenship/census-lessons/ | title=Census Lessons | first=Helen | last=Sunderland | work=History Worksho[ | date=24 March 2021}}</ref>

In the early 1970s, technology was developed that linked satellite offices to downtown mainframes through [[dumb terminal]]s using telephone lines as a [[network bridge]]. The terms ''telecommuting'' and ''telework'' were coined by Jack Nilles in 1973.<ref>{{citation | title=Jack Nilles | url=https://www.jala.com/jnmbio.php | work=jala.com | publisher=JALA International | date=September 26, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.lifewire.com/difference-between-telecommuting-and-telework-2378090 | title=Differences Between Telecommuting and Telework | first=Melanie | last=Uy | work=[[Lifewire]] | date=March 10, 2021}}</ref> In 1979, five IBM employees were allowed to work from home as an experiment. By 1983, the experiment was expanded to 2,000 people. By the early 1980s, branch offices and home workers were able to connect to organizational mainframes using [[personal computer]]s and [[terminal emulator]]s.

In 1995, the motto that "work is something you do, not something you travel to" was coined.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lURiQgAACAAJ | first=Leonhard |last=Woody |title=The Underground Guide to Telecommuting | publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-201-48343-7}}</ref> Variations of this motto include: "Work is what we do, not where we are."<ref>{{cite web | title=Mobile Worker Toolkit: A Notional Guide | url=https://www.gsa.gov/cdnstatic/MobileWorkerToolkitDetailed.pdf | publisher=[[General Services Administration]]}}</ref>

Since the 1980s, the normalization of remote work has been on a steady incline. For example, the number of Americans working from home grew by 4 million from 2003 to 2006,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gajendran |first1=Ravi |last2=Harrison |first2=David |title=The Good, The Bad, and the Unknown About Telecommuting: Meta-Analysis of Psychological Mediators and Individual Consequences |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |date=2007 |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=1524–1541 |doi=10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.1524 |pmid=18020794 |s2cid=6030172 |url=https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/apl-9261524.pdf |access-date=February 17, 2022}}</ref> and by 1983 academics were beginning to experiment with online conferencing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Byrd |first1=Nick |title=Online Conferences: Some History, Methods and Benefits |journal=Right Research: Modelling Sustainable Research Practices in the Anthropocene |date=2021 |pages=435–462 |doi=10.11647/OBP.0213.28 |s2cid=241554841|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In the 1990s and 2000s, remote work became facilitated by technology such as [[collaborative software]], [[virtual private network]]s, [[conference call]]ing, [[videotelephony]], [[internet access]], [[cloud computing]], [[voice over IP]] (VoIP), [[mobile telecommunication]]s technology such as a [[Wi-Fi]]-equipped [[laptop]] or [[tablet computer]]s, [[smartphone]]s, and [[desktop computer]]s, using software such as [[Zoom (software)|Zoom]], [[Cisco Webex|Webex]], [[Microsoft Teams]], [[Google Meet]], [[Slack (software)|Slack]], and [[WhatsApp]].

In his 1992 travelogue ''Exploring the Internet'', [[Carl Malamud]] described a "[[digital nomad]]" as  a person who "travels the world with a laptop, setting up [[FidoNet]] [[node (networking)|node]]s."<ref>{{cite book | title=Exploring the Internet: A Technical Travelogue | last=Malamud | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Malamud | isbn=0132968983 | publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |date=September 1992 | page=284}}</ref> In 1993, [[Random House]] published the ''Digital Nomad's Guide'' series of guidebooks by Mitch Ratcliffe and Andrew Gore. The guidebooks, ''PowerBook'', ''AT&T EO Personal Communicator'', and ''Newton's Law'', used the term "digital nomad" to refer to the increased mobility and more powerful communication and productivity technologies that facilitated remote work.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Gore | last2=Ratcliffe | first1=Andrew | first2=Mitch | publisher=[[Random House]] | date=1993 | title=AT&T EO personal communicator: A Digital Nomad's Guide | isbn=0-679-74695-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gore | last2=Ratcliffe | first1=Andrew | first2=Mitch | publisher=[[Random House]] | date=1993 | title=PowerBook: A Digital Nomad's Guide | isbn=0-679-74588-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Gore |last2=Ratcliffe | first1=Andrew | first2=Mitch | publisher=[[Random House]] | date=1993 | title=Newton's Law: A Digital Nomad's Guide | isbn=0-679-74647-1 }}</ref>

European hacker spaces of the 1990s led to [[coworking]]; the first such space opened in 2005.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Laura | first1=Bliss | title=How WeWork Has Perfectly Captured the Millennial Id |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/03/wework-the-perfect-manifestation-of-the-millennial-id/550922/ | work=[[The Atlantic]] | date=March 2018}}</ref> The new economy production no longer requires people to work together in the same physical space to access the tools and resources they need to produce their work and allows for distributed work.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Andrew |title=Distributed Workplace Sustainable Work Environments|year=2003|publisher=Spon Press|location=London|isbn=020361657X |last2=Wheeler |first2=Paul |last3=Whitehead |first3=Carolyn}}</ref>

In 2010, the Telework Enhancement Act of 2010 required each [[List of federal agencies in the United States|executive agency in the United States]] to establish policy allowing remote work to the maximum extent possible, so long as employee performance is not diminished.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.telework.gov/guidance-legislation/telework-legislation/legislation/ | title=Telework legislation | publisher=[[U.S. Office of Personnel Management]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=H.R. 1722 (111th): Telework Enhancement Act of 2010 | url=https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/111/hr1722 | publisher=[[GovTrack]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=White House, Statement by the Press Secretary | via=[[NARA|National Archives]] | work=[[whitehouse.gov]] | date=December 9, 2010 | url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2010/12/09/statement-press-secretary}}</ref>

During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], millions of workers began remote work for the first time.<ref>{{Cite news |title='Work from anywhere' is here to stay. How will it change our workplaces? | url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/business/technology/story/2020-11-12/companies-will-allow-employees-to-work-wherever-they-want | first=Andrea | last=Chang |work=[[San Diego Union-Tribune]] | date=November 12, 2020 | url-access=limited}}</ref> Cities in which the population of remote workers increased significantly were referred to as [[Zoom town]]s.<ref>{{cite news | last=Rosalsky | first=Greg | title=Zoom Towns And The New Housing Market For The 2 Americas | url=https://www.npr.org/sections/money/2020/09/08/909680016/zoom-towns-and-the-new-housing-market-for-the-2-americas | work=[[NPR]] |date=September 8, 2020}}</ref> According to a U.S. Labor Department study published, millions of Americans ceased working from home by 2022, and the number of employers reporting teleworking decreasing to the level before pandemic levels. From August to September 2022, approximately 72 percent of private-sector businesses reported little to no telework among workers, compared to roughly 60 percent from July to September 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sforza |first=Lauren |date=March 26, 2023 |title=Millions of Americans stopped working from home in 2022: Labor Dept. |url=https://thehill.com/business/3919102-millions-of-americans-stopped-working-from-home-in-2022-labor-dept/ |access-date=March 28, 2023 |website=The Hill |language=en-US}}</ref> During the [[Information Age]], many [[startups]] were founded in the homes of entrepreneurs who lacked financial resources.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

=== Remote work during COVID-19 ===
A 2020 study of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] estimated that 93% of world workers lived in countries with some sort of workplace closure. This figure was composed of: 32% living in countries with required closures for ''all'' but essential workplaces; 42% in countries where specific firms or worker categories had been closed; and 19% in countries with only recommended workplace closures.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 8, 2024 |title=ILO Monitor: COVID-19 and the world of work. Fifth edition |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/briefingnote/wcms_749399.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240108153534/https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/briefingnote/wcms_749399.pdf |archive-date=January 8, 2024 |access-date=January 8, 2024 |website=ILO Monitor on the world of work}}</ref>

The extensive use of remote work under COVID-19 constituted a major organizational transformation. However, the implementation of remote work during COVID-19 was hurried, and new technologies and operating systems had to be implemented without previous testing or training.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kelly Jackson |first=Marice |date=March 2022 |title=Working remotely: How organizational leaders and HRD practitioners used the experiential learning theory during the COVID-19 pandemic? |journal=New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=44–48 |doi=10.1002/nha3.20351 |pmc=9349552}}</ref> Organizations reported concerns about losses in culture and productivity whilst workers were more concerned about declines in social interactions,<ref name="Majumdar20">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/07420528.2020.1786107 |title=COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown: Cause of sleep disruption, depression, somatic pain, and increased screen exposure of office workers and students of India |date=2020 |last1=Majumdar |first1=Piya |last2=Biswas |first2=Ankita |last3=Sahu |first3=Subhashis |journal=Chronobiology International |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1191–1200 |pmid=32660352 |s2cid=220522398 }}</ref> internet connectivity and increased workload.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marzban |first1=Samin |last2=Durakovic |first2=Iva |last3=Candido |first3=Christhina |last4=Mackey |first4=Martin |date=2020 |title=Learning to work from home: experience of Australian workers and organizational representatives during the first Covid-19 lockdowns |journal=Journal of Corporate Real Estate |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=203–222 |doi=10.1108/JCRE-10-2020-0049 |s2cid=235900948 |doi-access=free |hdl=11343/267996}}</ref> Additionally, 25% of remote-working Americans were resistant to employer mandates to return to in-office work.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Workers are refusing to return to the office, and they are ready to face the consequences |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/workers-are-refusing-to-return-to-the-office-and-they-are-ready-to-face-the-consequences/ |access-date=November 10, 2022 |website=ZDNET |language=en}}</ref>

The abrupt transition to remote work during the pandemic led to an increase in both physical and mental health issues among workers; a lack of dedicated workspaces and distractions from others in the home were common negative influences on health and well-being, while effective communication with coworkers was supportive of health and well-being.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1097/JOM.0000000000002097 |title=Impacts of Working from Home During COVID-19 Pandemic on Physical and Mental Well-Being of Office Workstation Users |date=2021 |last1=Xiao |first1=Yijing |last2=Becerik-Gerber |first2=Burcin |last3=Lucas |first3=Gale |last4=Roll |first4=Shawn C. |journal=Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=181–190 |pmid=33234875 |pmc=7934324 }}</ref> The transition also increased the amount of time that individuals spent sitting at a workstation by up to two hours more per day, yet, most workers indicated being as productive working remotely as compared to office work before the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3233/WOR-210301 |title=Working from home during the COVID-19 pandemic: Impact on office worker productivity and work experience |date=2021 |last1=Awada |first1=Mohamad |last2=Lucas |first2=Gale |last3=Becerik-Gerber |first3=Burcin |last4=Roll |first4=Shawn |journal=Work |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=1171–1189 |pmid=34420999 |s2cid=237268855 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Supporting workers to identify effective approaches for boundary management between home and work across physical spaces, social interactions, and use of time are critical.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1177/15394492211033830 |title=Negotiating Time and Space when Working from Home: Experiences During COVID-19 |date=2021 |last1=Fukumura |first1=Yoko E. |last2=Schott |first2=Joseph M. |last3=Lucas |first3=Gale M. |last4=Becerik-Gerber |first4=Burcin |last5=Roll |first5=Shawn C. |journal=Otjr: Occupation, Participation and Health |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=223–231 |pmid=34315290 |s2cid=236472297 }}</ref> Research suggests that remote work can lead to increased employee satisfaction and productivity, but may also create challenges in team cohesion.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-12-19 |title=Research: The Growing Inequality of Who Gets to Work from Home |url=https://hbr.org/2023/12/research-the-growing-inequality-of-who-gets-to-work-from-home |access-date=2025-04-30 |work=Harvard Business Review |language=en |issn=0017-8012}}</ref>

The transition to remote work during the pandemic highlighted the importance of access and equity among individual workers to support productivity and well-being. The remote work arrangement during COVID-19 was better for higher-paid and higher-management personnel in terms of productivity and reported well-being; whereas individuals at the bottom end of the earning spectrum experience reduced remuneration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barrero |first1=Jose Maria |last2=Bloom |first2=Nicholas |last3=Davis |first3=Steven |date=April 2021 |title=Why Working from Home Will Stick |journal=NBER Working Paper Series |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research |doi=10.3386/w28731 |id=Working Paper 28731 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Utility bills also increased during the COVID-19 pandemic in an inconsistent manner. Utility bills for minorities and lower income individuals were more likely to increase because they lived in housing that was older, with less effective [[Building insulation|insulation]] and without [[Efficient energy use#Appliances|energy-efficient appliances]]. The increase in electricity also came due to the people using their utilities at different times of the day.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Calma |first=Justine |date=August 2, 2022 |title=The uneven energy costs of working from home |url=https://www.theverge.com/23274595/work-from-home-wfh-energy-bills-utility |access-date=December 3, 2022 |website=The Verge |language=en-US}}</ref>

A 2024 PNAS study found that remote work dispersed economic activity away from city centers, in particular in cities with high levels of remote work.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ramani |first1=Arjun |last2=Alecdo |first2=Joel |last3=Bloom |first3=Nicholas |date=2024 |title=How working from home reshapes cities |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=121 |issue=45 |pages=e2408930121 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2408930121 |pmid=39471226 |pmc=11551397 |bibcode=2024PNAS..12108930R |issn=0027-8424}}</ref>