Editing Renga (section)

== History==

===Classical and early medieval===
The "origin" of ''renga'' is traditionally associated with a passage in the {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Kojiki]]}}, wherein Prince [[Yamato Takeru]] speaks to an old man and inquires, by way of a ''[[katauta]]'' poem, how many nights he had slept since passing [[Nabari]] and [[Tsukuba]], to which the old man responds by way of another ''kata-uta'' poem, which combined form a single ''[[sedōka]]''.{{sfnm|1a1=Keene|1y=1999|1p=921}} Later medieval ''renga'' poets, out of reverence for this exchange, would refer to their art as "the Way of Tsukuba",{{sfnm|1a1=Keene|1y=1999|1p=921}} and the first imperial ''renga'' anthology, the ''[[Tsukubashū]]'', alludes to it in the title.{{sfnm|1a1=Keene|1y=1999|1loc=p. 959, note 4}}

The earliest extant renga appears in the [[Man'yōshū|Manyoshu]] ({{lang|ja|万葉集}}), with its 5-7-5 mora ''jōku'' ({{lang|ja|上句}} first stanza) written by [[Ōtomo no Yakamochi]] ({{lang|ja|大伴家持}}, 718-785) and its 7-7 mora ''geku'' ({{lang|ja|下句}} last stanza) written by a Buddhist nun ({{lang|ja|尼}} ''ama'') in an exchange of poems.<ref>Keene, Donald, ''The Comic Tradition in Renga'', in ''Japan in the Muromachi Age'', edited by John Hall and Takeshi Toyoda.  Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977. p. 244.</ref> This two-stanza form is now called ''tanrenga'' ({{lang|ja|短連歌}}) to differentiate it from ''chōrenga'' ({{lang|ja|長連歌}}), the ''hyakuin'' renga ({{lang|ja|百韻連歌}} 100-stanza ''renga'') to which the general term renga refers.

The ''tanrenga'' form was popular from the beginning of the Heian Period until the end of [[cloistered rule]] ({{lang|ja|院政}} ''insei'') and would sometimes appear in imperial anthologies of [[Waka (poetry)|waka]], which it closely resembled at a glance. It was during the ''insei'' period that the form began take shape and evolve into ''chōrenga''. The [[Kin'yō Wakashū|Kin'yōshū]] ({{lang|ja|金葉集}}) was the first [[List of Japanese poetry anthologies|imperial waka anthology]] to include an explicit section on renga thanks to its compiler [[Minamoto no Shunrai|Minamoto no Toshiyori]] ({{lang|ja|源俊頼}}, also Minamoto no Shunrai; ~1055–1129), who was the first to write about renga theory in his poetic treatise ''Toshiyori Zuinō'' ({{lang|ja|俊頼髄脳}}).

As ''tanrenga'' gained traction and began to feature more intricate and technically complex links between its two stanzas, the genre gained popularity as a game, and events were held to create the best links. Participants began going beyond the original two stanzas of ''tanrenga'', leading to the creation of a ''chōrenga'' form more formal than games like ''[[iroha]]'' renga, in which 47 stanzas beginning with each of the 47 characters of the ''[[hiragana]]'' writing system were linked. Around the same time, a more straightforward style of linking developed, which also helped to spur the lengthening of the form. Eventually, this 100-stanza renga, which alternated 5-7-5 and 7-7 mora verses (known as ''tanku'' {{lang|ja|短句}} and ''chōku'' {{lang|ja|長句}} respectively), became the basis for what we know as renga today.

The vocabulary of ''hyakuin'' renga was largely limited to the {{nihongo|standard poetic diction|歌言葉|utakotoba}} that had been established in the ''[[Kokin Wakashū|Kokinshū]].'' At this time, poets considered the use of ''utakotoba'' as the essence of creating a perfect [[waka (poetry)|''waka'']], and use of any other words was considered to be unbecoming of true poetry.

A comparable, though less evolved, tradition of 'linked verse' (''lián jù'' {{lang|ja|連句}}—the same characters as '[[renku]]')—evolved in [[Qin dynasty]] China,<ref>Reckert, Stephen, ''Beyond Chrysanthemums: Perspectives on Poetry East and West'', Oxford University Press, 1993, {{ISBN|0-19-815165-9}}, p.43</ref> and this Chinese form may have influenced Japanese ''renga'' during its formative period.<ref>Sato, Hiroaki. ''One Hundred Frogs, from ''renga'' to haiku to English'', Weatherhill 1983, {{ISBN|0-8348-0176-0}} p.11</ref> However, there are major differences between the two, the Chinese having a unity of subject and a general lightheartedness of tone, neither of which characteristic is present in Japanese ''renga''; furthermore, the history of Japanese poetry shows ''renga'' as an apparently natural evolution.<ref>Keene, Donald,  Japanese Literature: an Introduction for Western Readers, (New York: Grove Press, 1955) p. 33–34.</ref>

Around the time of the [[Shin Kokin Wakashū]] ({{lang|ja|新古今和歌集}}, 1205) during the rule of [[Emperor Go-Toba|Emperor Go-Tōba]], ''hyakuin'' renga developed enough to gain its first real independence from waka. In the courts, ''ushin mushin renga'' ({{lang|ja|有心無心連歌}}) sessions were held in which poets and non-poets were divided into ''ushin'' and ''mushin'' respectively to link stanzas. The ''ushin'' side would offer orthodox elegant stanzas while the ''mushin'' side would offer comical or aesthetically "wilder" stanzas ({{lang|ja|狂歌}} ''kyōka''), and while submissions from both sides were accepted as appropriate links, the ''ushin'' were favored. While this practice ended with the [[Jōkyū War|Jōkyū Disturbance]] (1221), it served as an important foundation for the further development of ''hyakuin'' renga, which placed more emphasis on the skill of poets, and stanzas by many major renga participants of the Go-Tōba court such as [[Fujiwara no Teika]] (1162–1241) were later anthologized in the [[Tsukubashū]].

After the Jōkyū Disturbance, renga moved out of the courts. In the popular ''hana no moto'' renga ({{lang|ja|花の下連歌}} "renga under flowers"), commoners would gather for renga sessions under the flowering trees in spring, a tradition that is estimated to have been around for about 100 years by the start of the [[Nanboku-chō period|Nanboku-chō Period]]. Some of the later resulting works were anthologized in the Tsukubashū. ''Jige'' renga ({{lang|ja|地下連歌}} "underground renga") was born out of ''hana no moto'' renga and was pervasive through the [[Mongol invasions of Japan]] (1274–1281) and after. The ''jige'' renga poets were led by Priest Zen’a ({{lang|ja|善阿法師}}, ??–1312), who built upon the rules of ''hana no moto'' renga but also deviated from them, creating new versions of forms such as 1-day 1000-stanza renga ({{lang|ja|一日千句連歌}} ''ichi nichi senku renga'')—telling of the genre's wide scale. Renga continued to flourish in the courts as well, and the era saw splendid renga gatherings of even 10,000 verses a day, as well as prominent women poets such as the Buddhist nun Nijō ({{lang|ja|二条尼}} ''nijō no ama'').

It was during the [[Kamakura period|Kamakura Period]] that the rules ({{lang|ja|式目}} ''shikimoku'') of renga began to develop.<ref>Carter, Steven D. ''The Road to Komatsubara'', Harvard University Press, 1987, {{ISBN|0-674-77385-3}}, pp. 33–72.</ref> At the time, one of the most important rules was ''fushimono'' ({{lang|ja|賦物}}), titular prompts that had to be followed by every stanza in the entire sequence. For instance, a white-black ''fushimono'' would call for each verse to alternate between including a white object and a black object. Others ''fushimono'' might be more linguistic, such as requiring odd verses to include three-mora phrases that became a different word upon removal of the middle mora, and even verses to include four-mora phrases that became a different word upon removal of the first and last mora.

===Late medieval===

In the [[Nanboku-chō period|Nanboku-cho Period]], renga began to take form and establish itself as a literary genre, largely owing to the efforts of [[Nijō Yoshimoto]] ({{lang|ja|二条良基}}, 1320–1388), who compiled the first imperial renga anthology [[Tsukubashū]] ({{lang|ja|菟玖波集}}) in 1356. As reflected in the collection, aesthetic and linguistically polished ''hyakuin'' renga that embodied the spirit of the renga session became the foundation for the genre as it is known today.

Yoshimoto was a disciple of Gusai ({{lang|ja|救済}}, also Kyūsei or Kyūzei; 1281–1376), who was taught by Zen’a. Gusai, a commoner priest, was a leading ''jige'' renga poet and key collaborator in the compilation of the Tsukubashū. Yoshimoto was an aristocrat who served in the [[Northern Court]] of the Ashikaga Shogunate. He was originally a waka poet, and his relationship with Gusai, who also had training in courtly literature, brought together common and courtly renga traditions. Yoshimoto was the first to write extensively on renga theory, creating many works laying out the genre’s structure, aesthetic standards, ''shikimoku'', and more. One major change he made was to the ''fushimono'', which remained part of the title but now only applied to the first verse rather than the whole sequence. Other important rules delineated the maximum numbers of stanzas in which certain topics could appear in a row, and maximum numbers of stanzas in which certain topics could appear across the whole sequence. Many of his aesthetic treatises became important pedagogical artifacts for future renga poets. Through his theoretical work and compilation of the Tsukubashū, Yoshimoto elevated renga to the status of an independent literary genre, setting a crucial foundation for its golden age.

The golden age of renga is widely regarded as the Muromachi Period, during which many of the greatest renga masters were active. The era is epitomized by the poet [[Sōgi]] ({{lang|ja|宗祇}}, 1421–1502) and his compilation of the renga anthology Shintsukubashū ({{lang|ja|新菟玖波集}}, lit. "New Tsukubashū).

Prior to Sōgi, [[Ichijō Kaneyoshi]] ({{lang|ja|一条兼良}}, also Kanera; 1402–1481) aimed to succeed his grandfather Nijō Yoshimoto with his compilation of the Aratamashū ({{lang|ja|新玉集}}), which he worked on with the priest Sōzei ({{lang|ja|宗砌}}). However, the anthology was lost and the creation of the next major anthology was completed instead by Sozei’s disciple, Sōgi. Sōzei was one of the "seven sages," a group of poets all active around that time. They consisted of Priest Chiun ({{lang|ja|智蘊法師}}, 1448–1471), Priest Sōzei ({{lang|ja|宗砌法師}}, ??–1455), High Priest Gyōjo ({{lang|ja|法印行助}}, 1405–1469), Priest Nōa ({{lang|ja|能阿法師}}, 1397–1471), Clergyman Shinkei ({{lang|ja|権大僧都心敬}}; 1406–1475), High Priest Senjun ({{lang|ja|法眼専順}} 1411–1476), and Priest Sōi ({{lang|ja|宗伊法師}}, 1418–1485). Their work was later anthologized by Sōgi in his anthology Chikurinshō ({{lang|ja|竹林抄}}), for which Kaneyoshi wrote the preface.

Sōgi, a commoner priest, studied literature extensively, learning renga from Sōzei and classical literature from Kaneyoshi among others. He spent much time travelling the country as a professional renga poet despite the tumultuous political context of his era. His works often feature the relationship between humans and nature. His anthology Shintsukubashū became the successor to the [[Tsukubashū]], and he also composed many other major works, the two most famous being "Three Poets at Minase" ({{lang|ja|水無瀬三吟百韻}} ''Minase Sangin Hyakuin'') and "Three Poets at Yuyama" ({{lang|ja|湯山三吟百韻}} ''Yuyama Sangin Hyakuin''). Both sequences were composed by Sōgi and two of his disciples, the priests Shōhaku ({{lang|ja|肖柏}}, 1143–1527) and Sōchō ({{lang|ja|宗長}}, 1448–1532), in 1488 and 1491 respectively. The former was created as an offering for [[Emperor Go-Toba]], the compiler of the Shinkokinshū, making it a formal piece with ceremonial grandeur.<ref>Carter, Steven D. "Three Poets at Yuyama. Sōgi and Yuyama Sangin Hyakuin, 1491." ''Monumenta Nipponica'', vol. 33, no. 3, Sophia University, 1978, pp. 241–83. JSTOR, ''JSTOR'', doi:10.2307/2383991.</ref> "Three Poets at Yuyama," on the other hand, was created in a more relaxed setting and enjoyed greater popularity in its time. It did, however, maintain also many conventions of renga despite its greater flexibility. The two are now considered the most canonical renga sequences and were widely used pedagogically as standards for the genre.

Sōgi’s death in 1502 was followed by a peak in popularity and then decline of renga as the new genre ''haikai'' developed. Sōgi’s lineage of disciples continued the renga tradition that ended with the death of Jōha ({{lang|ja|紹巴}}, 1524–1602), who is considered to be the final major renga poet.

One of Sōgi’s final disciples and also a previous disciple of Sōchō, the priest Sōseki ({{lang|ja|宗碩}}, 1474–1533), continued the Sōgi line of disciples after the poet’s death. Sōhoku ({{lang|ja|宗牧}}, ??–1545) was a disciple of Sōchō and Sōseki, and after their deaths rose to the forefront of the renga world. Like his predecessors, he spent much of his time travelling and wrote many works on renga theory in addition to his compositions. His son Sōyō ({{lang|ja|宗養}}, 1526–1563) was raised renga poet as well and continued the tradition of travel. He became the top renga master after the death of all of the previous generation. His own death marked the end of the Sōgi tradition of renga, and his contemporary Satomura Jōha rose by default to the top position in the renga world.

Jōha came from another branch of the Sōgi lineage; he studied under Sōseki’s disciple Shūkei ({{lang|ja|周桂}}, 1470–1544), and then Shūkei’s disciple [[Satomura Shōkyū]] ({{lang|ja|里村昌休}}, 1511–1552) after Shūkei’s death, taking Satomura as his family name. Jōha was heavily involved with major political figures of his time, establishing connections with important people from various factions.<ref>Keene, Donald. "Joha, a Sixteenth-Century Poet of Linked Verse." ''Warlords, Artists and Commoners : Japan in the Sixteenth Century. E''dited by George Elison and Bardwell L. Smith. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1987. pp. 113-133.</ref> His renga moved toward easy understandability and away from the depth and aesthetic standards of the previous tradition. After his death, renga’s period of widespread popularity ended as it was overtaken by [[haikai]], its child genre. [[Matsuo Bashō]] (1644–1694) became the most prominent haikai poet and was later also famous for his haiku.

''Renga'' was a popular form of poetry even in the confusion of [[Azuchi–Momoyama period]]. Yet by the end of this era, the ''shikimoku'' had become so complicated and systematic that they stifled the active imagination that had been a part of the ''renga''{{'}}s appeal. During the medieval and Edo periods, ''renga'' was a part of the cultural knowledge required for high society.

===Edo–Meiji===

In the [[Edo period]], as more and more ordinary citizens became familiar with ''renga'', ''shikimoku'' were greatly simplified. The 36-verse Kasen became the most popular form of ''renga'', and commonly spoken words as well as slang and [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|Chinese words]] were allowed. With this relaxation of the rules, ''renga'' were able to express broader humor and wit. This style of ''renga'' came to be called ''[[renku|haikai no renga]]'' ("comical linked verse") or simply ''[[haikai]]'', and [[Matsuo Bashō]] is known as the greatest ''[[haikai]]'' poet.

The most favored form of ''renga'' in the [[Edo period]] was the {{nihongo|''kasen''|歌仙}}, a chain consisting of 36 verses. As a rule, ''kasen'' must refer to flowers (usually [[cherry blossoms]]) twice, and three times to the moon. These references are termed {{nihongo|''hana no za''|花の座||"the seat of flowers"}} and {{nihongo|''tsuki no za''|月の座||"the seat of the moon"}}.

The first stanza of the ''renga'' chain, the ''[[hokku]]'', is the forebear of the modern [[haiku]]. The stand-alone hokku was renamed haiku in the [[Meiji period]] by the great Japanese poet and critic [[Masaoka Shiki]]. Shiki proposed ''haiku'' as an abbreviation of the phrase "''haikai no ku''" meaning a verse of ''[[haikai]]''.<ref>Miner, Earl. ''Japanese Linked Poetry''. Princeton University Press, 1980. {{ISBN|0-691-01368-3}} pbk.</ref>

For almost 700 years, ''renga'' was a popular form of poetry, but its popularity was greatly diminished in the Meiji period. Masaoka Shiki, although himself a participant in several ''renga'',<ref>[[William J. Higginson|Higginson, William J]]. ''The Haiku Seasons'', Kodansha, 1996, {{ISBN|4-7700-1629-8}} p.55</ref> claimed that {{nihongo|"(''Renga'' is) not literature"|「文学に非ず」|Bungaku ni arazu}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nihonjiten.com/monogatari/data_45.html|script-title=ja:連歌・連句 (''Renga'', ''Renku'')|work={{nihongo|Japan Dictionary|日本辞典|Nihon-Jiten}}|access-date=23 December 2012}}</ref> The ''renga'''s appeal of working as a group to make a complete work was not compatible with the European style of poetry gaining popularity in Japan, where a single poet writes the entire poem.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}