Editing Repatriation (section)

==Repatriation of humans==

===Voluntary vs. forced return===
[[Voluntary return]] is the return of eligible persons, such as refugees, to their [[country of origin]] or citizenship based on freely expressed willingness to such return. Voluntary return, unlike expulsion and deportation, which are actions of sovereign states, is defined as a personal right under specific conditions described in various international instruments, such as the [[OAU Convention]], along with customary international law.
[[File:Two 11th century stone lintels from Thailand.jpg|thumb|250x250px|The U.S. government returns two 11th century stone lintels to Thailand, marking the end of a four-year effort on behalf of the Thailand to bring these items home.]]
Examples of contemporary repatriation include Germany repatriating around 320,000 Bosnian refugees starting 1997, German readmission agreements with Romania and Bulgaria in 1993, expulsion of 21,000 Albanians in 1996 from Italy, expulsion of 51,000 from Netherlands in 1996.<ref name="Zetter">[https://www.temaasyl.se/Documents/Artiklar/hors259.pdf Zetter, Roger, et al. "An assessment of the impact of asylum policies in Europe, 1990-2000." Home Office Online Report 17.03 (2003).]</ref> Sweden and Italy applied in some cases detention prior to expulsion, which was described as [[Deterrence theory|deterrence]].<ref name="Zetter"/> Certain countries offer financial support to refugees and immigrants to facilitate the process of starting a new life in their country of origin. Examples of 21st-century voluntary return include the Danish government, which in 2009 began offering £12,000 each to immigrants to return,<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/denmark/6533845/Denmark-offers-immigrants-12000-to-return-home.html "Denmark offers immigrants £12,000 to return home"], The Telegraph. November 10, 2009. Retrieved 9 feb 2017</ref> Switzerland offering approximately 6,500 Francs, targeted for business startups upon returning home,<ref>[http://nigeriaworld.com/feature/publication/ubochi/112809.html "Switzerland and Nigerians Abroad"], Temple Chima Ubochi. ''Nigeria World''. November 28, 2009. Retrieved 9 feb 2017</ref> as well as Ireland.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/15/ireland-pay-immigrants-go-home "Irish government to pay immigrants to go home"], Henry McDonald. ''The Guardian''. November 14, 2009. Retrieved 9 feb 2017</ref> In 2016, Germany allocated €150 million over three years for migrants willing to return,<ref>[http://www.politico.eu/article/germany-to-pay-for-migrants-to-go-home-gerd-muller/ "Germany to pay for migrants to go home"], Cynthia Kroet. Politico EU. December 9, 2016. Retrieved 9 feb 2017</ref> and the Swedish government began offering £3,500 each.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160831153703/http://www.onenewsnow.com/culture/2016/08/29/thousands-of-migrants-paid-by-swedish-govt-to-leave "Thousands of migrants paid by Swedish gov't to leave"], Michael F. Haverluck. One News Now. August 29, 2016. Retrieved 9 feb 2017</ref> 544 Nigerians returned home from Switzerland in 2013.<ref>[http://www.swissinfo.ch/directdemocracy/returning-asylum-seekers_a-fresh-start-in-nigeria--brought-to-you-by-switzerland/38687662 "A fresh start in Nigeria, brought to you by Switzerland"], Veronica DeVore. Swiss Info. June 6, 2014. Retrieved 9 Feb 2017</ref> This financial support may also be considered as residency buyouts.

Two countries may have a re-admission agreement, which establishes procedures, on a reciprocal basis, for one state to return irregular non-nationals to their country of origin or a country through which they have transited.<ref name="Perruchoud 2011"/> [[Illegal immigrant]]s are frequently repatriated as a matter of government policy. Repatriation measures of [[voluntary return]], with financial assistance, as well as measures of [[deportation]] are used in many countries.

As repatriation can be voluntary or forced, the term is also used as a euphemism for deportation. Involuntary or forced repatriation is the return of refugees, prisoners of war, or civil detainees to their country of origin under circumstances that leave no other viable alternatives. According to [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] refugees under political persecution should be given [[political asylum]].<ref>[https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 14]</ref><ref name="Perruchoud 2011">Perruchoud, Richard and Jillyanne Redpath-Cross (eds.), Glossary on Migration, Second Edition, International Organisation for Migration, International Migration Law, No. 25, Geneva, 2011.</ref> The forced return of people to any country where "life or freedom would be threatened" due to "race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion" is against [[Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees]] according to [[non-refoulement]].<ref name="convention">{{Cite news|url=http://www.unhcr.org/protection/basic/3b66c2aa10/convention-protocol-relating-status-refugees.html|title=Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees|last=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|work=UNHCR|access-date=2017-03-27|language=en}}</ref>

===Repatriation vs. return===
While repatriation necessarily brings an individual to his or her territory of origin or citizenship, a return potentially includes bringing the person back to the point of departure. This could be to a third country, including a country of transit, which is a country the person has traveled through to get to the country of destination. A return could also be within the territorial boundaries of a country, as in the case of returning [[internally displaced persons]] and demobilized combatants. The distinction between repatriation and return, voluntary or involuntary, is not always clear.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Julien|last=Brachet|title=Policing the Desert: The IOM in Libya Beyond War and Peace|journal=Antipode|volume=48|number=2|date=2016|pages=272–292|doi=10.1111/anti.12176|bibcode=2016Antip..48..272B }}</ref>

===Medical repatriation===
Repatriation is linked with health care due to the costs and resources associated with providing medical treatment to travelers and immigrants pursuing citizenship. For example, if a foreign national is in the United States with a visa and becomes ill, the insurance that the visa holder has in his or her native country may not apply in the United States, especially if it is a country with [[universal health care]] coverage. This scenario forces hospitals to choose one of three options: 
* Limit their services to emergency care only (as per the [[Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act]]) 
* Offer charity care free of charge or at a reduced rate 
* Repatriate the patient back to his or her native country where he or she will be covered according to that country's policy<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wack|first=Kevin J.|author2=Toby Schonfeld |title=Patient Autonomy and the Unfortunate Choice between Repatriation and Suboptimal Treatment|journal=American Journal of Bioethics|year=2012|volume=12|issue=9|pages=6–7|doi=10.1080/15265161.2012.692444|pmid=22881843|s2cid=24932647}}</ref>
Determining which option is the most ethical is often very challenging for hospital administrators.

In some cases, a traveler's personal insurance company may repatriate the patient back to their home country for medical treatment due to the cost of medical expenses in the current country. The method of repatriation could be via regular flight, by ground, or by air ambulance which ever is deemed necessary subjected to the medical condition of patient and cost in mind. Medical repatriation is different from the act of [[medical evacuation]].

=== Repatriation of foreign nationals abroad during wars ===
Countries have repatriated their nationals who are abroad during the outbreak of a war. For example when World War II begun in 1939, the United States launched a repatriation effort to repatriate Americans who were either living or visiting Europe with 75,000 Americans being repatriated by early November 1939.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wilk |first=Gavin |date=2021 |title=Hasty Departures: The Evacuation of American Citizens from Europe at the Outbreak of World War II |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9jk269dd#main |journal=[[Journal of Transnational American Studies]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |doi=10.5070/T812139136 |via=eScholarship |doi-access=free}}</ref> At the beginning of the [[Korean War]], the United States repatriated its civilians from Korea sending them to Japan with a total of 1,655 people being repatriated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haulman |first=Daniel L. |date=Summer 2001 |title=Salvation from the Sky: Airlift in the Korean War, 1950 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26274211 |journal=Air Power History |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=16–25 |jstor=26274211 |quote=The demand for airlift erupted on the first day of the invasion. John J. Muccio, U.S. Ambassador to South Korea, requested a sea and air evacuation of American civilians from Korea. Most of the evac-uees were in the Seoul area, and had to leave through the port of Inchon or nearby Kimpo and Suwon airfields. The Far East Air Forces (FEAF) and its 374th Troop Carrier Group mustered 7 four- engine C–54s, and 14 two-engine C–47s and C–46s at Itazuke and Ashiya Air Bases in Japan for the airlift. Between June 27 and 29, the Air Force evacuated about 850 civilians from Korea to Japan. Fifth Air Force F–80 jets and F–82 Twin Mustang fighters covered the evacuation and shot down seven enemy aircraft. At the same time 905 evacuees departed by sea. }}</ref>

====Post–World War II====
In the 20th century, following all European wars, several repatriation commissions were created to supervise the return of war refugees, [[displaced person]]s, and [[prisoners of war]] to their country of origin. Repatriation [[hospital]]s were established in some countries to care for the ongoing medical and health requirements of returned military personnel. In the [[Soviet Union]], the refugees seen as traitors for surrendering were often killed or sent to [[Siberia]]n concentration camps.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Fields|first1=Paul|title=Ostarbeiters|url=http://magazines.russ.ru/zvezda/2005/6/po8.html|website=Coffee Lounge|access-date=January 11, 2015}}</ref>

Issues surrounding repatriation have been some of the most heatedly debated political topics of the 20th and 21st centuries. Many [[Operation Keelhaul|forced back to the Soviet Union by Allied forces]] in [[World War II]] still hold this forced migration against the [[United States of America]] and the [[United Kingdom]].

The term ''repatriation'' was often used by Communist governments to describe the large-scale state-sponsored [[ethnic cleansing]] actions and [[Population transfer|expulsion]] of national groups. [[Poland|Poles]] born in territories that were annexed by the Soviet Union,  although deported to the State of Poland, were settled in the annexed former [[Germany|German]] territories (referred to in Polish as the [[Regained Territories]]). In the process they were told that they had returned to their Motherland.

After the fall of the [[Iron Curtain]] and end of [[Bosnian War]] increased repatriation, [[deportation]] and readmission agreements were observed in Europe.<ref name="Zetter"/>

===Repatriation of mortal remains===
{{main|Repatriation and reburial of human remains}}
In modern society where everything has become interconnected, it is not uncommon for diasporas to be found living abroad. When someone passes away overseas, a next of kin usually has to physically fly over to verify the body before the body gets repatriated back home by a funeral home.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Singapore Repatriation Services |url=https://www.singaporefuneralservices.sg/repatriation-services/ |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=Harmony Funeral Care |language=en-US}}</ref>

====Battlefield casualties====
The [[Korean War]] marked the first time that the United States or any nation began returning the bodies of battlefield casualties as soon as possible.<ref name=Sledge>{{cite book |last=Sledge |first=Michael |title=Soldier Dead: How We Recover, Identify, Bury, and Honor Our Military Fallen |orig-year=First published 2005 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780231509374 |pages=78–80 |oclc= 60527603 |year=2005 }}</ref> During [[Operation Glory]], which followed the [[Korean Armistice Agreement]], thousands of remains were exchanged by both sides.<ref name=Sledge /><ref>Not all remains from the Korean War were returned to the home countries. Some 2,300 casualties are buried at the [[United Nations Memorial Cemetery]] in [[Busan, South Korea]].</ref> The practice of immediately recovering casualties continued for United States during the [[Vietnam War casualties|Vietnam War]].<ref name=Sledge />

===Repatriation laws===
{{See also|Extradition}}
Repatriation laws give non-citizen foreigners who are part of the titular [[Ethnic majority|majority group]] the opportunity to immigrate and receive [[citizenship]]. Repatriation of their titular diaspora is practiced by most [[Ethnic nationalism|ethnic nation]] states. Repatriation laws have been created in many countries to enable [[diaspora]]s to immigrate ("return") to their "kin-state". This is sometimes known as the exercise of the [[right of return]]. Repatriation laws give members of the diaspora the right to immigrate to their kin-state and they serve to maintain close ties between the state and its diaspora and gives preferential treatment to diaspora immigrants.

Most countries in central and eastern Europe as well as [[Armenia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Kazakhstan]], the [[Philippines]], [[Spain]], [[South Korea]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Turkey]] have longstanding repatriation legislation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ajc.org/atf/cf/%7B42D75369-D582-4380-8395-D25925B85EAF%7D/YakobsonRubinstein2005.pdf|title=Democratic Norms, Diasporas, and Israel's Law of Return|last2=Rubinstein|first2=Amnon|author-link2=Amnon Rubinstein|first1=Alexander|last1=Yakobson|author-link1=Alexander Yakobson|work=ajc.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126182841/http://www.ajc.org/atf/cf/%7B42D75369-D582-4380-8395-D25925B85EAF%7D/YakobsonRubinstein2005.pdf|archive-date=2010-11-26}}</ref> [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Norway]] and [[Serbia]] also have repatriation laws for their diaspora populations. The number of countries with repatriation laws has mushroomed since the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|end of Soviet communism]] and most independent nations that were [[Post-Soviet states|once part of the communist domain]] in [[Europe]] have since legislated repatriation laws. Many other countries such as [[Jordan]] and [[Sweden]] have (or have had) generous immigration policies with regard to the nation's [[diaspora]] without having formally enacted repatriation laws. Such states can be described as practicing ''common law repatriation''.

In comparison, one of the central tenets of the [[Rastafari movement]] is the desirability of the repatriation of [[black people]] from the [[Americas]] and elsewhere back to [[Africa]]. While [[Ethiopia]] specifically has land available in [[Shashamane]] to encourage this project, black people who are citizens of countries outside Africa do not have the [[right of return]] to Africa, although as individuals they are free to try to [[emigration|emigrate]].

===Psychological aspects===
Repatriation is often the "forgotten" phase of the [[expatriation]] cycle; the emphasis for support is mostly on the actual period abroad.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} However, many repatriates report experiencing difficulties on return: one is no longer special, practical problems arise, new knowledge gained is no longer useful, etc. These difficulties are highly influenced by a number of factors including [[Personal development|self-management]], [[Marriage|spouse's]] adjustment, time spent abroad and skill utilisation. What is crucial is that every individual perceives these factors in a different way. Reintegration is a process of re-inclusion or re-incorporation of a person into a group or a process, and may contribute to overcoming repatriation.<ref name="Perruchoud 2011"/>

Direct managers and [[Human resources|HR]] staff often notice the difficulties a repatriate experiences, but they are not always able to act on it. Budget shortcomings and time constraints are frequently cited as reasons why it fails to be an agenda priority. Solutions for repatriation difficulties do not have to be expensive and can lead to great benefits for the company.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} Basic support can consist, for example, of good communication in advance, during and after the international assignment, or a mentor program to assist the repatriate. The expatriate and his/her family should feel understood by his or her company. Support can increase job satisfaction, thereby protecting the investment made by the company.<ref>Ripmeester, N. "Handle with care", ''Graduate Recruiter'', Issue 22 (February) 2005</ref>