Editing Russian grammar (section)

== Nouns ==
{{main article|Russian declension#Nouns}}
Nominal [[declension]] involves six main [[Grammatical case|cases]]{{snd}}[[nominative]], [[genitive]], [[Dative case|dative]], [[Accusative case|accusative]], [[Instrumental case|instrumental]], and [[Prepositional case|prepositional]]{{snd}}in two numbers ([[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]), and [[grammatical gender]] (masculine, feminine, and neuter). Up to ten [[#Additional cases|additional cases]] are identified in linguistics textbooks,<ref>{{in lang|ru}} Zaliznyak A. A. "Русское именное словоизменение." Moscow.: Science, 1967</ref><ref>{{in lang|ru}} Uspenskij V. A. "К определению падежа по А. Н. Колмогорову // Бюллетень объединения по проблемам машинного перевода." Issue. 5. Moscow., 1957 [http://www.kolmogorov.pms.ru/uspensky-k_opredeleniyu_padezha_po_kolmogorovu.html online copy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423181920/http://www.kolmogorov.pms.ru/uspensky-k_opredeleniyu_padezha_po_kolmogorovu.html |date=2012-04-23 }}</ref><ref>{{in lang|ru}} Klobukov E. V. "Семантика падежных форм в современном русском литературном языке. (Введение в методику позиционного анализа)" Moscow: Moscow State University Press, 1986.</ref> although all of them are either incomplete (do not apply to all nouns) or degenerate (appear identical to one of the six main cases) – the most recognized additional cases are [[Locative case|locative]], [[Partitive case|partitive]] and [[Vocative case|vocative]]. [[Old East Slavic|Old Russian]] also had a third number, the [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]], but it has been lost except for its use in the nominative and accusative cases with the numbers 1½, 2, 3 and 4 (e.g. {{lang|ru|полтора часа}} "an hour and a half", {{lang|ru|два стула}} "two chairs"), where it is now reanalyzed as genitive singular.

Russian has some nouns that only appear in the singular form ([[singulare tantum]]), for example: {{lang|ru|малина}}, {{lang|ru|природа}}; also, approximatеly 600 words appear only in the plural form ([[plurale tantum]]): {{lang|ru|деньги}}, {{lang|ru|ножницы}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wade |first=Terence |title=A Comprehensive Russian Grammar |date=2024-04-08 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1-4051-3639-6 |edition=3rd |location=Malden, MA |publication-date=2010-09-27 |pages=70–73}}</ref>

More often than in many other Indo-European languages, Russian noun cases may supplant the use of prepositions entirely.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Cases of Russian Nouns|url=http://masterrussian.com/aa071600a.shtml|website=Master Russian|access-date=31 March 2015}}</ref> Furthermore, every preposition is exclusively used with a particular case (or cases). Their usage can be summarised as:<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian case functions in brief|url=http://www.alphadictionary.com/rusgrammar/casefunc.html|website=alphaDictionary|access-date=3 August 2016}}</ref>
* [[nominative]] ({{lang|ru|имени́тельный}}):
** main subject;
** default case to use outside sentences (dictionary entries, signs, etc.);
** prepositions: {{wikt-lang|ru|что за|за}} '(what) kind of?'; {{lang|ru|в}}: 'join the ranks of' (with plural nouns only);
* [[accusative]] ({{lang|ru|вини́тельный}}):
** direct object;
** some time expressions;
** prepositions indicating motion: {{lang|ru|в}} 'into, in(ward)', {{lang|ru|на}} 'onto (the top of)', {{lang|ru|за}} 'behind, after', {{lang|ru|под}} 'under';
** other prepositions: {{lang|ru|про}} 'about', {{lang|ru|через}} 'over, through', {{lang|ru|сквозь}} 'through';
* [[genitive]] ({{lang|ru|роди́тельный}}):
** possession – 'of' (genitive noun);
** numerals and quantifiers;
** negated verbs (which take direct objects in accusative) to indicate total absence;
** some time expressions;
** prepositions: {{lang|ru|без}} 'without', {{lang|ru|вместо}} 'instead of', {{lang|ru|возле}} 'near', {{lang|ru|вокруг}} 'around', {{lang|ru|впереди}} 'ahead of', {{lang|ru|для}} 'for', {{lang|ru|до}} 'before', {{lang|ru|из}} 'from', {{lang|ru|из-за}} 'because of, from behind', {{lang|ru|от}} 'from', {{lang|ru|кроме}} 'except for', {{lang|ru|мимо}} 'past by', {{lang|ru|около}} 'near', {{lang|ru|после}} 'after', {{lang|ru|против}} 'against, opposite', {{lang|ru|среди}} 'among', {{lang|ru|у}} 'by', {{lang|ru|близ}} 'near', {{lang|ru|вдоль}} 'along', {{lang|ru|вне}} 'out of, outside', {{lang|ru|внутри}} 'inside';
** verbs: {{lang|ru|бояться}} 'afraid of', {{lang|ru|достигать}} 'reach', {{lang|ru|избегать}} 'avoid';
** adjectives: {{lang|ru|полный}} 'full of' (genitive noun);
* [[dative]] ({{lang|ru|да́тельный}}):
** indirect object – 'to' (dative noun);
** some time expressions;
** impersonal clauses: {{lang|ru|мне холодно}} – 'I am cold', lit. "to_me (is) cold";
** age statements: {{lang|ru|мне двадцать лет}} – 'I am 20 (years old)', lit. 'to_me (is) 20 years';
** prepositions: {{lang|ru|по}} 'on', {{lang|ru|к}} 'to(wards)', {{lang|ru|благодаря}} 'thanks to';
** auxiliaries: {{lang|ru|нужно}} ''or'' {{lang|ru|надо}} 'need/must (to)', {{lang|ru|можно}} 'allowed', {{lang|ru|нельзя}} 'forbidden';
** verbs: {{lang|ru|верить}} 'believe', {{lang|ru|помочь}} 'help', {{lang|ru|советовать}} 'advise', {{lang|ru|звонить}} 'call', {{lang|ru|удивить(ся)}} 'amaze (self)';
* [[Instrumental case|instrumental]] ({{lang|ru|твори́тельный}}):
** instrument used in the action or means by which action is carried out – 'by' (I. noun);
** logical subject of passive clause: {{lang|ru|письмо написано Иваном}} – 'the letter was written by Ivan';
** secondary direct object: {{lang|ru|его считают студентом}} – 'he is considered (to be) a student';
** durational time expressions;
** verbs: {{lang|ru|интересовать(ся)}} 'interest (to be interested in)', {{lang|ru|пользоваться}} 'use', {{lang|ru|занимать(ся)}} 'occupy (to be preoccupied with)';
** associates of connective verbs: {{lang|ru|быть}} 'be', {{lang|ru|стать}} 'became', {{lang|ru|остаться}} 'remain', {{lang|ru|казаться}} 'appear to be', {{lang|ru|оказаться}} 'turn out to be';
** prepositions of position: {{lang|ru|за}} 'behind', {{lang|ru|перед}} 'in front of', {{lang|ru|над}} 'above', {{lang|ru|под}} 'below', {{lang|ru|между}} 'between', {{lang|ru|(вместе) с}} '(together) with';
** adjective: {{lang|ru|довольный}} 'pleased by';
* [[prepositional]] ({{lang|ru|предло́жный}}):
** prepositions of place: {{lang|ru|в}} 'inside', {{lang|ru|на}} 'on (top of)';
** other prepositions: {{lang|ru|о}} 'about', {{lang|ru|при}} 'by/of/with';
Definite and indefinite [[Article (grammar)|articles]] (corresponding to 'the', 'a', 'an' in English) do not exist in the Russian language. The sense conveyed by such articles can be determined in Russian by context. However, Russian also utilizes other means of expressing whether a noun is definite or indefinite:
* The use of a direct object in the genitive instead of the accusative in negation signifies that the noun is indefinite, compare: {{lang|ru|Я не ви́жу кни́ги}} ("I don't see a book" or "I don't see any books") and {{lang|ru|Я не ви́жу кни́гу}} ("I don't see the book").
* The same goes for certain verbs expressing a desire to achieve something: wait, wish, ask, want, etc. When the inanimate object is definite (certain, or at least expected), the accusative is used; when it is indefinite (uncertain), the genitive is used. Compare: {{lang|ru|Я жду автобус}} ("I'm waiting for the bus", а specific, scheduled bus) and {{lang|ru|Я жду автобуса}} ("I'm waiting for a bus", any bus, if one will come).<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://gramma.ru/RUS/?id=13.21 Жду звонка...]</ref>
* The use of the numeral one sometimes signifies that the noun is indefinite, e.g.: {{lang|ru|Почему́ ты так до́лго?}} – {{lang|ru|Да так, встре́тил одного́ дру́га, пришло́сь поговори́ть}} ("Why did you take so long?" – "Well, I met one [=a] friend and had to talk").
* Word order may also be used for this purpose; compare {{lang|ru|В ко́мнату вбежа́л ма́льчик}} ("Into the room rushed a boy") and {{lang|ru|Ма́льчик вбежа́л в ко́мнату}} ("The boy rushed into the room").
* The plural form may signify indefiniteness: {{lang|ru|Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́то в магази́нах}} ("You can buy this in shops") vs. {{lang|ru|Вы мо́жете купи́ть э́то в магази́не}} ("You can buy this in the shop").

The category of [[animacy]] is relevant in Russian nominal and adjectival declension.<ref>[https://cooljugator.com/run Cooljugator: The Smart Declinator in Russian nouns]</ref><!-- Should be academic paper here; this is a good link for «external» section --> Specifically, the accusative has two possible forms in many paradigms, depending on the animacy of the referent. For animate referents (persons and animals), the accusative form is generally identical to the genitive form. For inanimate referents, the accusative form is identical to the nominative form. This principle is relevant for masculine singular nouns of the second declension (see below) and adjectives, and for all plural paradigms (with no gender distinction). In the tables below, this behavior is indicated by the abbreviation 'N or G' in the row corresponding to the accusative case.

Russian uses three declensions:<ref name="(English) I.Pulkina,E.Zakhava-Nekrasova; '''Russian: A Practical Grammar with Exercises''' , (Москва, Русский язык, 1992),pps. 40-50.">Translated from the Russian by V. Korotky</ref>
* The first declension is used for feminine nouns ending with {{lang|ru|-а}}/{{lang|ru|-я}} and some masculine nouns having the same form as those of feminine gender, such as {{lang|ru|па́па}} (papa) or {{lang|ru|дя́дя}} (uncle); also, common-gender nouns like {{lang|ru|зади́ра}} (bully) are masculine or feminine depending on the person to which they refer.
* The second declension is used for most masculine and neuter nouns.
* The third declension is used for feminine nouns ending in {{lang|ru|ь}}.

A group of irregular "different-declension nouns" ({{langx|ru|разносклоняемые существительные}}), consists of a few neuter nouns ending in {{lang|ru|-мя}} (e.g. {{wikt-lang|ru|время}} "time") and one masculine noun {{wikt-lang|ru|путь}} "way". However, these nouns and their forms have sufficient similarity with feminine third declension nouns that scholars such as Litnevskaya<ref>Е. И. Литневская. [http://learning-russian.gramota.ru/book/litnevskaya.html Русский язык. Краткий теоретический курс для школьников] БСМП "ЭЛЕКС-Альфа", 2000</ref> consider them to be non-feminine forms of this declension.

Nouns ending with {{lang|ru|-ий}}, {{lang|ru|-ия}}, {{lang|ru|-ие}} (not to be confused with [[Nominalized_adjective#Russian|nominalized adjectives]]) are written with {{lang|ru|-ии}} instead of {{lang|ru|-ие}} in prepositional (as this ending is never stressed, there is no difference in pronunciation): {{lang|ru|тече́ние}} – {{lang|ru|в ни́жнем тече́нии реки́}} "streaming – in lower streaming of a river". However, if words {{wikt-lang|ru|в течение}} and {{wikt-lang|ru|в продолжение}} represent a compound [[preposition]] meaning{{snd}}"while, during the time of"{{snd}}they are written with {{lang|ru|-е}}: {{lang|ru|в тече́ние ча́са}} "in a time of an hour". For nouns ending in {{lang|ru|-ья}}, {{lang|ru|-ье}}, or {{lang|ru|-ьё}}, using {{lang|ru|-ьи}} in the prepositional (where endings of some of them are stressed) is usually erroneous, but in [[Russian poetry|poetic speech]] it may be acceptable (as we replace {{lang|ru|-ии}} with {{lang|ru|-ьи}} for [[Metre (poetry)|metric]] or [[Rhyme|rhyming]] purposes): {{lang|ru|Весь день она́ лежа́ла в забытьи́}} ([[Fyodor Tyutchev]]).

=== First declension ===

==== Feminine and masculine nouns ending with а or {{lang|ru|я}} vowel ====

{| class="wikitable"
! 
! singular
! plural
|-
! nominative
| <big>{{lang|ru|-а}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-я}}, {{lang|ru|-ия}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ы}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-и}}, {{lang|ru|-ии}}</sup>
|-
! accusative
| <big>{{lang|ru|-у}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ю}}, {{lang|ru|-ию}}</sup> || ''N or G''
|-
! genitive
| <big>{{lang|ru|-ы}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-и}}, {{lang|ru|-ии}}</sup> || <big>∅</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ь}}, {{lang|ru|-ий}}</sup>
|-
! dative
| <big>{{lang|ru|-е}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-е}}, {{lang|ru|-ии}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ам}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ям}}, {{lang|ru|-иям}}</sup>
|-
! instrumental
| <big>{{lang|ru|-ой}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ей}}, {{lang|ru|-ией}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ами}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ями}}, {{lang|ru|-иями}}</sup>
|-
! prepositional
| <big>{{lang|ru|-е}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-е}}, {{lang|ru|-ии}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ах}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ях}}, {{lang|ru|-иях}}</sup>
|}

=== Second declension ===

==== Masculine nouns ending with a consonant sound ====

{| class="wikitable"
! 
! singular
! plural
|-
! nominative
| <big>∅</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ь}}/{{lang|ru|-й}}, {{lang|ru|-ий}}, +{{lang|ru|ин}}-∅</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ы}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-и}}, {{lang|ru|-ии}}, {{lang|ru|-е}}</sup>
|-
! accusative
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ''N or G''
|-
! genitive
| <big>{{lang|ru|-а}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-я}}, {{lang|ru|-ия}}, +{{lang|ru|ин-а}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ов}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ей}}/{{lang|ru|-ев}}, {{lang|ru|-иев}}, -∅</sup>
|-
! dative
| <big>{{lang|ru|-у}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ю}}, {{lang|ru|-ию}}, +{{lang|ru|ин-у}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ам}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ям}}, {{lang|ru|-иям}}, {{lang|ru|-ам}}</sup>
|-
! instrumental
| <big>{{lang|ru|-ом}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ем}}, {{lang|ru|-им}}, {{lang|ru|-ием}}, +{{lang|ru|ин-ом}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ами}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ями}}, {{lang|ru|-иями}}, {{lang|ru|-ами}}</sup>
|-
! prepositional
| <big>{{lang|ru|-е}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-е}}, {{lang|ru|-ии}}, +{{lang|ru|ин-е}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ах}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ях}}, {{lang|ru|-иях}}, {{lang|ru|-ах}}</sup>
|}
Some singular nouns denoting groups of people may include the {{lang|ru|-ин-}} suffix before ending.

==== Neuter nouns ====

{| class="wikitable"
|
! style="text-align: center;" | singular
! style="text-align: center;" | plural
|-
! nominative
| rowspan="2" | <big>{{lang|ru|-о}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-е}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-а}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-я}}</sup>
|-
! accusative
| ''N or G''
|-
! genitive
| <big>{{lang|ru|-а}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-я}}</sup> || <big>∅</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-й}}, {{lang|ru|-ей}}</sup>
|-
! dative
| <big>{{lang|ru|-у}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ю}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ам}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ям}}</sup>
|-
! instrumental
| <big>{{lang|ru|-ом}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ем}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ами}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ями}}</sup>
|-
! prepositional
| <big>{{lang|ru|-е}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-е}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ах}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ях}}</sup>
|}

=== Third declension ===

==== Feminine nouns ending with letter ь ====
{| class="wikitable"
|
! style="text-align: center;" | singular
! style="text-align: center;" | plural
|-
! nominative
| rowspan="2" | <big>{{lang|ru|-ь}}</big> || <big>{{lang|ru|-и}}</big>
|-
! accusative
| ''N or G'' <sup>{{lang|ru|-и}}</sup>
|-
! genitive
| rowspan="2" | <big>{{lang|ru|-и}}</big> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ей}}</big>
|-
! dative
| <big>{{lang|ru|-ям}}</big>
|-
! instrumental
| <big>{{lang|ru|-ью}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ём}}</sup> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ями}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-я́ми}}</sup>
|-
! prepositional
| <big>{{lang|ru|-и}}</big> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ах}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ях}}</sup>
|}

==== Neuter nouns ending with мя ====

{| class="wikitable"
|
! style="text-align: center;" | singular
! style="text-align: center;" | plural
|-
! nominative
| rowspan="2" | <big>{{lang|ru|-я}}</big> || rowspan="2" | <big>{{lang|ru|-ена́}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ёна}}</sup>
|-
! accusative
|-
! genitive
| rowspan="2" | <big>{{lang|ru|-ени}}</big> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ён}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ён}}</sup>
|-
! dative
| <big>{{lang|ru|-ена́м}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ёнам}}</sup>
|-
! instrumental
| <big>{{lang|ru|-енем}}</big> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ена́ми}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ёнами}}</sup>
|-
! prepositional
| <big>{{lang|ru|-ени}}</big> || <big>{{lang|ru|-ена́х}}</big> <sup>{{lang|ru|-ёнах}}</sup>
|}

=== Indeclinable nouns ===
Some nouns (such as borrowings from other languages, abbreviations, etc.) are not modified when they change number and case. This occurs especially when the ending appears not to match any declension pattern in the appropriate gender. A few examples of indeclinable nouns are:
* Foreign words:
** ко́фе ("coffee", masculine in literary language, neuter in colloquial);
** пальто́ ("overcoat", neuter);
** бюро́ ("bureau, office, desk, writing-table"; neuter);
* Abbreviations:
** СССР ([ɛs ɛs ɛs ˈɛr] "USSR", masculine);
** США ([sɛ ʂɛ ˈa] or [sɨ ʂ(ɨ) ˈa], "USA", plural).

=== Additional cases ===
{{More footnotes needed|section|date=April 2023}}
Some nouns use several additional cases. The most important of these are:
* [[Locative case|Locative]] ({{lang|ru|ме́стный}}): the most common minor case, used with some nouns after the prepositions of location {{lang|ru|на}} and {{lang|ru|в(о)}}. With most nouns, the prepositional form is used in such instances. When there is a distinct locative, it takes the form of the dative ending but with the ending necessarily stressed. A few feminine nouns ending in {{lang|ru|ь}} have a locative form of independent origin, consisting of the singular genitive/dative/prepositional ending but with the ending necessarily stressed. This may mean it matches the dative, or it may take a unique form. For example, in {{lang|ru|во рт'''у́'''}} ("in the mouth") and {{lang|ru|в груд'''и́'''}} ("in the chest"), the locatives of {{lang|ru|рот}} ("mouth") and {{lang|ru|грудь}} match the dative forms {{lang|ru|рт'''y'''}} and (modern) {{lang|ru|груд'''и́'''}}. In the case of {{lang|ru|рот}}, this differs from the prepositional {{lang|ru|рт'''e'''}}, but in the case of {{lang|ru|грудь}} the prepositional (and all other singular oblique cases besides instrumental) have merged with the locative. In {{lang|ru|в лес'''у́'''}} ("in the forest") and  {{lang|ru|в связ'''и́'''}} ("in view (of)"), the locatives of {{lang|ru|лес}} ("forest") and {{lang|ru|связь}} ("link, connection") differ from both the prepositional {{lang|ru|ле́с'''е'''}} and {{lang|ru|свя́з'''и'''}} and the dative {{lang|ru|ле́с'''y'''}} and {{lang|ru|свя́з'''и'''}} (the dative and locative of {{lang|ru|лес}} are spelt identically but pronounced differently).
* [[Partitive case|Partitive]] ({{lang|ru|отдели́тельный}}), or second genitive: sometimes used instead of the accusative (as it should be for the direct object) to imply, that only part of the object is affected by the verb: {{lang|ru|нали́ть ча́'''ю'''}} "to pour some tea" (not all the tea) — from {{lang|ru|нали́ть ча'''й'''}} "to pour the tea". This form may be also used after nouns meaning quantity: {{lang|ru|ча́шка ча́'''ю'''}} "a cup of tea" (also {{lang|ru|ча́шка ча́'''я'''}} with the standard genitive).
* [[Vocative case|Vocative]] ({{lang|ru|зва́тельный}}): used to call or speak to a person. There are two types of vocative in modern Russian. The common Slavic vocative is archaic and survives only in fixed expressions, often relating to the divinity: {{lang|ru|Бо́'''же''' мой!}} (My God!), {{lang|ru|Го́спо'''ди'''!}} (Good Lord!), {{lang|ru|моли́тва "О́т'''це''' наш"}} (the prayer "Our Father", i.e. the Lord's prayer). The modern vocative (sometimes called neo-vocative) is produced from a first-declension noun by removing the vowel ending: {{lang|ru|мам, ты меня слышишь?}} "mom, can you hear me?" from {{lang|ru|ма́ма}}. It can only be applied to familiar (affectionate) terms for family members or close friends and [[diminutive]]s of commonly used Slavic names: {{lang|ru|Ива́н}} (full name) — {{lang|ru|Ва́ня}} (short, affectionate) — {{lang|ru|Вань}} (neo-vocative); {{lang|ru|Мари́я — Ма́ша — Маш}}. It is frequently used in the informal spoken language with a certain number of nouns in the plural: {{lang|ru|"ребя́т, пойдёмте!"}} ("guys, let's go!") from {{lang|ru|ребя́та}}, {{lang|ru|"девча́т, смотри́те!"}} ("girls, look!") from {{lang|ru|девча́та}}.