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Sandawe language
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==Phonology== ===Vowels=== [[File:Sandawe vowel chart.svg|thumb|Sandawe vowel chart, from {{Harvcoltxt|Eaton|2006|p=237}}]] Sandawe has five vowel qualities: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! ! [[Front vowel|Front]] ! [[Back vowel|Back]] |- ! [[Close vowel|Close]] | {{IPA link|i}} | {{IPA link|u}} |- ! [[Mid vowel|Mid]] | {{IPA link|e}} | {{IPA link|o}} |- ! [[Open vowel|Open]] | colspan=2 | {{IPA link|a}} |} All five vowel qualities may be found as short oral, long oral and long nasal vowels. Thus /a/ can be found as {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/aː/}} and {{IPA|/ãː/}} respectively. There are therefore fifteen basic vowel phonemes. Short nasal vowels also occur, apparently from the historical elision of a nasal consonant that is still attested in related forms. Long vowels are written double, {{lang|sad|aa}}, and long nasal vowels with a tilde, {{lang|sad|ã}}. Long vowels are about 50% longer than short vowels. In morpheme-final position, low-tone {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} are frequently devoiced, though this may not occur after {{IPA|/j/}}, {{IPA|/w/}}, or {{IPA|/h/}}. ===Consonants=== ====Non-click consonants==== The glyphs in {{angbr|brackets}} are the practical orthography developed by Hunziker and Hunziker, along with approximate equivalents in the IPA. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | ! rowspan=2 | [[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! colspan=2 | [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]] ! rowspan=2 | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! rowspan=2 | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] ! rowspan=2 | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! ! <small>[[Sibilant]]</small> |- ! colspan=2 | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|m}} {{angbr|m}} | {{IPA link|n}} {{angbr|n}} | | | | |- ! rowspan=4 | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />and<br />[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]] ! <small>[[Voiced consonant|Voiced]]</small> | {{IPA link|b}} {{angbr|b}} | {{IPA link|d}} {{angbr|d}} | {{IPA link|dʒ}} ~ {{IPA link|dz}} {{angbr|dz}} |{{IPA link|ɟ͜ʎ̝}} {{angbr|dl}}{{efn|name=rare|Rare consonants.}} | {{IPA link|ɡ}} {{angbr|g}} | |- ! <small>[[Tenuis consonant|Tenuis]]</small> | {{IPA link|p}} {{angbr|bp}} | {{IPA link|t}} {{angbr|dt}} | {{IPA link|tʃ}} ~ {{IPA link|ts}} {{angbr|tc}} | {{IPA link|c͜𝼆}} {{angbr|tl}}{{efn|name=rare}} | {{IPA link|k}} {{angbr|gk}} | {{IPA link|ʔ}} {{angbr|ʼ}} |- ! <small>[[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]]</small> | {{IPA link|pʰ}} {{angbr|p}} | {{IPA link|tʰ}} {{angbr|t}} | {{IPA link|tʃʰ}} ~ {{IPA link|tsʰ}} {{angbr|tch}} | | {{IPA link|kʰ}} {{angbr|k}} | |- ! <small>[[Ejective consonant|Ejective]]</small> | | colspan=2 | {{IPA link|tsʼ}} {{angbr|tsʼ}} | {{IPA link|c͜𝼆ʼ}} {{angbr|tlʼ}} | {{IPA link|kʼ}} {{angbr|kʼ}} | |- ! colspan=2 | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] | {{IPA link|f}} {{angbr|f}}{{efn|name=rare}} | {{IPA link|ɬ}} {{angbr|lh}} | {{IPA link|s}} {{angbr|s}} | | {{IPA link|x}} {{angbr|kh}} | {{IPA link|h}} {{angbr|h}} |- ! colspan=2 | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]] | | {{IPA link|ɾ}} {{angbr|r}} | | | | |- ! colspan=2 | [[Approximant]] | | {{IPA link|l}} {{angbr|l}} | | {{IPA link|j}} {{angbr|y}}{{efn|name=rare}} | {{IPA link|w}} {{angbr|w}} | |} {{Notelist}} {{lang|sad|Tc}} and {{lang|sad|dz}} are {{IPA|[tʃ]}} and {{IPA|[dʒ]}} in the northwestern dialect, but often {{IPA|[ts]}} and {{IPA|[dz]}} or even {{IPA|[z]}} in the southeast. {{IPA|[tsʰ]}} for {{lang|sad|tch}} occurs but is less common. ====Clicks==== {| Class=wikitable style="text-align:center" ! ! [[Laminal consonant|Laminal]]<br />[[Denti-alveolar consonant|Denti-alveolar]] ![[Apical consonant|Apical]]<br />[[Postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]] ! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]<br />[[Palatal consonant|palatal]] |- ! [[nasal click|Nasal]] | {{IPA link|ŋǀ}} {{angbr|nc}} |{{IPA link|ŋǃ}} {{angbr|nq}} | {{IPA link|ŋǁ}} {{angbr|nx}} |- ! [[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]] | {{IPA link|ɡǀ}} {{angbr|gc}} |{{IPA link|ɡǃ}} {{angbr|gq}} | {{IPA link|ɡǁ}} {{angbr|gx}} |- ! [[Tenuis consonant|Tenuis]] | {{IPA link|kǀ}} {{angbr|c}} |{{IPA link|kǃ}} {{angbr|q}} | {{IPA link|kǁ}} {{angbr|x}} |- ! [[Aspirated consonant|Aspirated]] | {{IPA link|kǀʰ}} {{angbr|ch}} |{{IPA link|kǃʰ}} {{angbr|qh}} | {{IPA link|kǁʰ}} {{angbr|xh}} |- ! [[glottalized click|Glottalised]] | {{IPA link|ᵑǀˀ}} {{angbr|cʼ}} |{{IPA link|ᵑǃˀ}} {{angbr|qʼ}} | {{IPA link|ᵑǁˀ}} {{angbr|xʼ}} |} The clicks in Sandawe are not particularly loud, when compared to better known click languages in southern Africa. The lateral click {{IPAblink|kǁ}} can be confused with the [[palatal lateral ejective affricate]] {{IPAblink|c𝼆ʼ}} even by native speakers. With the [[alveolar click|postalveolar clicks]], the tongue often slaps the bottom of the mouth, and this slap may be louder than the actual release of the click. Wright et al. transcribe this [[slapped click]] with sublingual percussive with the [[extended-IPA]] symbol {{angbr IPA|ǃ¡}}. The voiced clicks are uncommon, being found in a few words such as {{lang|sad|gqokomi}} 'greater kudu' and {{lang|sad|gcingco}} (sp. bird). Labialized clicks are found in word-initial position. The glottalized click phonation is something like [[creaky voice]], not an [[ejective]]. In initial position, the [[glottis]] is closed during the entire occlusion of the click, and not opened until after the release burst. In medial position, the glottis is closed after the velar closure {{IPA|[ŋ]}} and before the forward closure, but opened ''before'' the click release. Such clicks are not nasalized all the way through; in some tokens they are simply prenasalized glottalized clicks, {{IPA|[ŋkǃˀ]}}, bearing in mind that the superscript {{angbr IPA|ˀ}} implies [[co-articulated consonant|coarticulation]] (that is, that it is pronounced together with the {{IPA|[k]}}, not after). The practical orthography is based on [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] and [[Zulu language|Zulu]]. ===Tone=== Hunziker et al. (2008) transcribe seven phonetic tones: high {{IPA|[á]}}, mid {{IPA|[ā]}}, low {{IPA|[à]}}, high falling {{IPA|[â]}}, mid falling {{IPA|[ā̀]}}, low falling {{IPA|[ȁ]}}, and rising {{IPA|[ǎː]}} (on long vowels only). In Sandawe orthography, they are written as exactly with their IPA spelling, but the rising tone is marked as {{lang|sad|ǎ}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sandawe language |url=https://omniglot.com/writing/sandawe.htm |website=Omniglot |access-date=13 October 2021}}</ref> High and low tones are analyzed as the basic tone configurations. However, the high-falling tone is contrastive, for example in {{lang|sad|tsʼâ}} 'water', but it also occurs often due to a sequence of tones. The mid tone does not occur initially. Hunziker et al. analyze it as a [[downstep]]ped high tone: //H-L-H// is realized as [H-H-M]. This rightward shift on the tones is a general process in Sandawe.{{Clarify|reason=last H of H-L-H seems to have shifted leftward in H-H-M rather than rightward; M may be a transformed L and have shifted rightward, but this is by no means clear from the text|date=August 2014}} This analysis requires the assumption of [[floating tone|floating low tones]] carried by [[consonant cluster]]s, and thought to reflect a historical vowel which has been deleted. The low and mid falling{{Clarify|reason=low falling and mid falling or plain low and mid falling?|date=August 2014}} tones are a prosodic effect, found on final syllables, or on penultimate syllables followed by a voiceless vowel; this leftward shift of tone before voiceless vowels (which by their nature cannot carry tone) is another general process of Sandawe. Rising tone is only found on long vowels and can be analyzed as a low-high sequence. Thus at a phonemic level, {{smallcaps|high}}, {{smallcaps|low}}, {{smallcaps|falling}}, and {{smallcaps|downstep}} are contrastive. ===Phonotactics=== The majority of Sandawe syllables are [[consonant|C]][[vowel|V]]. Morpheme-initially, consonant clusters are of the form Cw; these are not found in the middle of morphemes. Most consonants are attested in this Cw sequence apart from the labials, the glottals ({{lang|sad|ʼ}}, {{lang|sad|h}}), sonorants ({{lang|sad|r}}, {{lang|sad|l}}, {{lang|sad|y}}, {{lang|sad|w}}), and the rather infrequent consonants {{lang|sad|n}}, {{lang|sad|d}}, {{lang|sad|dl}}, & the voiced clicks, which may simply be gaps in attestation. The rounded vowels {{lang|sad|o}}, {{lang|sad|u}} are not found after Cw sequences. Vowel initial syllables, as in {{lang|sad|cèú}} 'buffalo', are not found initially, though initial glottal stop is not written ({{lang|sad|íóó}} {{IPA|/ʔíóː/}} 'mother'). Glottal stops {{IPA|/ʔ/}} are found as syllable codas, though these may be released in an [[echo vowel]] in some circumstances. Hunziker et al. prefer to analyze these are final consonants, because the quality of the echo vowel is predictable, and otherwise this is the only place where the vowels {{IPA|/e/}}. {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/o/}} would have voiceless allophones. Hunziker et al. find complementary distribution between homorganic [[Nasal stop|N]]C clusters, which occur only medially (there are no word-final nasal consonants), and nasal vowels, which they only transcribe word finally. It would therefore seem that NC clusters are the realization of a preceding nasal vowel. Other final consonants are found as consonant clusters in the middle of a word. Historically, these are presumably due to vowel elision, as evidenced by records from the early 20th century and also by tone patterns. In the northwestern dialect, words are found with final consonants where tonal patterns suggest there was once a voiceless final vowel, and where the southeastern dialect retains a voiceless {{IPA|i}} or {{IPA|u}}.
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