Editing Saxitoxin (section)

==Source in nature==
Saxitoxin is a [[neurotoxin]] naturally produced by certain species of marine [[dinoflagellates]] ([[Alexandrium (dinoflagellate)|''Alexandrium'']] sp., ''[[Gymnodinium]]'' sp., ''[[Pyrodinium]]'' sp.) and freshwater cyanobacteria (''[[Dolichospermum cicinale]]'' sp., some ''[[Aphanizomenon]]'' spp., ''[[Cylindrospermopsis]]'' sp., ''[[Lyngbya]]'' sp., ''[[Planktothrix]]'' sp.)<ref name="uhm">{{cite journal |author1=Clark R. F. |author2=Williams S. R. |author3=Nordt S. P. |author4=Manoguerra A. S. |title=A review of selected seafood poisonings |journal=Undersea Hyperb Med |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=175–84 |year=1999 |pmid=10485519 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007062742/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/2314 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=October 7, 2008 |access-date=2008-08-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Landsberg | first1 = Jan H. | s2cid = 86185142 | title = The Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms on Aquatic Organisms | doi = 10.1080/20026491051695 | journal = Reviews in Fisheries Science | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 113–390 | year = 2002| bibcode = 2002RvFS...10..113L }}</ref> Saxitoxin accumulates in "planktivorous [[Invertebrate|invertebrates]], including [[Mollusca|mollusks]] (bivalves and [[Gastropoda|gastropods]]), [[Crustacean|crustaceans]], and [[Echinoderm|echinoderms]]".<ref name="sax">{{cite web | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/saxitoxin | title=Saxitoxin | access-date=April 10, 2022 }}</ref>

Saxitoxin has also been found in at least twelve marine [[puffer fish]] species in Asia and one freshwater fish [[tilapia]] in [[Brazil]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Galvão | first1 = J. A. | last2 = Oetterer | first2 = M. | last3 = Bittencourt-Oliveira Mdo | first3 = M. D. C. | last4 = Gouvêa-Barros | first4 = S. | last5 = Hiller | first5 = S. | last6 = Erler | first6 = K. | last7 = Luckas | first7 = B. | last8 = Pinto | first8 = E. | last9 = Kujbida | first9 = P. | doi = 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.06.021 | title = Saxitoxins accumulation by freshwater tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) for human consumption | journal = Toxicon | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 891–894 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19560484 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2009Txcn...54..891G }}</ref> The ultimate source of STX is often still uncertain. The dinoflagellate ''[[Pyrodinium bahamense]]'' is the source of STX found in [[Florida]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = E. A. | last2 = Grant | first2 = F. | last3 = Ferguson | first3 = C. M. J. | last4 = Gallacher | first4 = S. | title = Biotransformations of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins by Bacteria Isolated from Bivalve Molluscs | doi = 10.1128/AEM.67.5.2345-2353.2001 | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 67 | issue = 5 | pages = 2345–2353 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11319121| pmc =92876 | bibcode = 2001ApEnM..67.2345S }}</ref><ref name="Sato, S. 1997">{{Cite journal | last1 = Sato | first1 = S. | last2 = Kodama | first2 = M. | last3 = Ogata | first3 = T. | last4 = Saitanu | first4 = K. | last5 = Furuya | first5 = M. | last6 = Hirayama | first6 = K. | last7 = Kakinuma | first7 = K. | doi = 10.1016/S0041-0101(96)00003-7 | title = Saxitoxin as a toxic principle of a freshwater puffer, Tetraodon fangi, in Thailand | journal = Toxicon | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 137–140 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9028016| bibcode = 1997Txcn...35..137S }}</ref> Recent research shows the detection of STX in the skin, muscle, viscera, and gonads of "[[Indian River Lagoon]]" southern puffer fish, with the highest concentration (22,104 μg STX eq/100 g tissue) measured in the [[ovaries]]. Even after a year of captivity, [[Jan H. Landsberg|Landsberg et al.]] found the skin mucus remained highly toxic.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Landsberg | first1 = J. H. | last2 = Hall | first2 = S. | last3 = Johannessen | first3 = J. N. | last4 = White | first4 = K. D. | last5 = Conrad | first5 = S. M. | last6 = Abbott | first6 = J. P. | last7 = Flewelling | first7 = L. J. | last8 = Richardson | first8 = R. W. | last9 = Dickey | first9 = R. W. | doi = 10.1289/ehp.8998 | title = Saxitoxin Puffer Fish Poisoning in the United States, with the First Report of Pyrodinium bahamense as the Putative Toxin Source | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 114 | issue = 10 | pages = 1502–1507 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17035133| pmc =1626430 | last10 = Jester | first10 = Edward L.E. | last11 = Etheridge | first11 = Stacey M. | last12 = Deeds | first12 = Jonathan R. | last13 = Van Dolah | first13 = Frances M. | last14 = Leighfield | first14 = Tod A. | last15 = Zou | first15 = Yinglin | last16 = Beaudry | first16 = Clarke G. | last17 = Benner | first17 = Ronald A. | last18 = Rogers | first18 = Patricia L. | last19 = Scott | first19 = Paula S. | last20 = Kawabata | first20 = Kenji | last21 = Wolny | first21 = Jennifer L. | last22 = Steidinger | first22 = Karen A. | bibcode = 2006EnvHP.114.1502L }}</ref> The concentrations in puffer fish from the United States are similar to those found in the Philippines, Thailand,<ref name="Sato, S. 1997"/> Japan,<ref name="Sato, S. 1997"/><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Deeds | first1 = J. R. | last2 = Landsberg | first2 = J. H. | last3 = Etheridge | first3 = S. M. | last4 = Pitcher | first4 = G. C. | last5 = Longan | first5 = S. W. | title = Non-Traditional Vectors for Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning | doi = 10.3390/md6020308 | journal = Marine Drugs | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 308–348 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18728730| pmc =2525492 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and South American countries.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Lagos | first1 = N. S. | last2 = Onodera | first2 = H. | last3 = Zagatto | first3 = P. A. | last4 = Andrinolo | first4 = D. ́O. | last5 = Azevedo | first5 = S. M. F. Q. | last6 = Oshima | first6 = Y. | doi = 10.1016/S0041-0101(99)00080-X | title = The first evidence of paralytic shellfish toxins in the freshwater cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, isolated from Brazil | journal = Toxicon | volume = 37 | issue = 10 | pages = 1359–1373 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10414862| bibcode = 1999Txcn...37.1359L }}</ref> Puffer fish also accumulate a structurally distinct toxin, [[tetrodotoxin]].<ref>For a more comprehensive discussion of TTX-producing bacterial species associated with metazoans from which the toxin has been isolated or toxicity observed, and biosynthesis, see {{cite journal | vauthors = Chau R, Kalaitzis JA, Neilan BA | title = On the origins and biosynthesis of tetrodotoxin | journal = Aquatic Toxicology | volume = 104 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 61–72 | date = Jul 2011 | pmid = 21543051 | doi = 10.1016/j.aquatox.2011.04.001 | bibcode = 2011AqTox.104...61C | url = http://charlie.ambra.unibo.it/didattica/docs/bioc-inq/Toxin/Marine_toxins/On%20the%20origins%20and%20biosynthesis%20of%20tetrodotoxin.pdf | access-date = 2022-04-10 | archive-date = 2016-03-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160305152535/http://charlie.ambra.unibo.it/didattica/docs/bioc-inq/Toxin/Marine_toxins/On%20the%20origins%20and%20biosynthesis%20of%20tetrodotoxin.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref>