Editing Scientist (section)

==History==

[[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|right|upright|"No one in the history of civilization has shaped our understanding of science and natural philosophy more than the great Greek philosopher and scientist [[Aristotle]] (384-322 BC), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two thousand years" —Gary B. Ferngren<ref>Gary B. Ferngren (2002). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC&pg=PA33 Science and religion: a historical introduction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316104643/http://books.google.com/books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC&pg=PA33&dq&hl=en |date=2015-03-16 }}''". [[JHU Press]]. p.33. {{ISBN|0-8018-7038-0}}</ref>]]

[[File:Georgius Agricola.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Georgius Agricola]] gave [[chemistry]] its modern name. Generally referred to as the father of [[mineralogy]] and the founder of [[geology]] as a scientific discipline.<ref name=berk>{{cite web|url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/agricola.html |title= Georgius Agricola   | publisher = University of California - Museum of Paleontology |access-date= April 4, 2019  }}</ref><ref name="Rafferty 2012 p. 10">Rafferty, John P. (2012). ''Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks''. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 10. {{ISBN|9781615305445}}</ref>]]
[[File:JKepler.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Johannes Kepler]], one of the founders and fathers of modern [[astronomy]], the [[scientific method]], [[Natural science|natural]] and [[modern science]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dpma.de/english/our_office/publications/milestones/greatinventors/johanneskepler/index.html | title=Johannes Kepler´s 450th birthday |publisher=German Patent and Trade Mark Office }}</ref>]]
[[File:Alessandro Volta.jpeg|thumb|upright|180px|[[Alessandro Volta]], the inventor of the [[Battery (electricity)|electrical battery]] and discoverer of [[methane]], is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists in history.]]
[[File:Francesco Redi.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Francesco Redi]], referred to as the "father of modern parasitology", is the founder of experimental biology.]]
[[File:Portrait of Sir Isaac Newton, 1689 (brightened).jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Isaac Newton]], who is regarded as "the towering figure of the [[Scientific Revolution]]",<ref name=":92">{{Cite book |last=Matthews |first=Michael R. |author-link=Michael R. Matthews |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrcqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA181 |title=Time for Science Education: How Teaching the History and Philosophy of Pendulum Motion Can Contribute to Science Literacy |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science+Business Media, LLC |isbn=978-0-306-45880-4 |series= |location=New York |pages=181 |language=en}}</ref> and who achieved the [[Unification of theories in physics#Unification of gravity and astronomy|first great unification in physics]], created classical mechanics, calculus and refined the scientific method.]]

[[File:Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax,_Mrs_William_Somerville,_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Mary Somerville]], for whom the word "scientist" was coined.]]
[[File:Albert Einstein photo 1921.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Physicist [[Albert Einstein]] developed the general theory of relativity and made many substantial contributions to physics.]]
[[File:Enrico Fermi 1943-49.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Physicist [[Enrico Fermi]] is credited with the creation of the world's first atomic bomb and nuclear reactor.]]
[[File:Niels Bohr.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Atomic physicist [[Niels Bohr]] made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory.]]
[[File:Rachel-Carson.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Marine Biologist [[Rachel Carson]] launched the 20th century [[environmental movement]].]]

The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the [[social norms]], [[ethical values]], and [[epistemic virtues]] associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential.

Some historians point to the [[Scientific Revolution]] that began in 16th century as the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It was not until the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic changes had occurred for scientists to emerge as a major profession.<ref>On the historical development of the character of scientists and the predecessors, see: Steven Shapin (2008). ''The Scientific Life: A Moral History of a Late Modern Vocation''.  Chicago: Chicago University Press. {{ISBN|0-226-75024-8}}</ref>

===Classical antiquity===
[[History of science in classical antiquity|Knowledge about nature in classical antiquity]] was pursued by many kinds of scholars. [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] contributions to science—including works of geometry and mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning—were produced by [[philosopher]]s and [[physician]]s, as well as practitioners of various trades. These roles, and their associations with scientific knowledge, spread with the [[Roman Empire]] and, with the [[History of Christianity#Roman Empire|spread of Christianity]], became closely linked to religious institutions in most European countries. [[Astrology]] and [[astronomy]] became an important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with the support of political and religious [[patronage]]. By the time of the [[medieval university]] system, knowledge was divided into the ''[[Trivium (education)|trivium]]''—philosophy, including [[natural philosophy]]—and the ''[[quadrivium]]''—mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians. Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians.

===Middle Ages===
[[Science in medieval Islam]] generated some new modes of developing natural knowledge, although still within the bounds of existing social roles such as philosopher and mathematician. Many proto-scientists from the [[Islamic Golden Age]] are considered [[polymath]]s, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern [[scientific discipline]]s. Many of these early polymaths were also religious [[priest]]s and [[Theology|theologians]]: for example, [[Alhazen]] and [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|al-Biruni]] were [[Kalam|mutakallimiin]]; the physician [[Avicenna]] was a [[Hafiz (Quran)|hafiz]]; the physician [[Ibn al-Nafis]] was a hafiz, [[muhaddith]] and [[ulema]]; the botanist [[Otto Brunfels]] was a theologian and historian of Protestantism; the astronomer and physician [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] was a priest. During the [[Italian Renaissance]] scientists like [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Galileo Galilei]] and [[Gerolamo Cardano]] have been considered the most recognizable polymaths.

===Renaissance===
During the [[Renaissance]], [[Italians]] made substantial contributions in science. [[Leonardo da Vinci]] made significant discoveries in paleontology and anatomy. The Father of modern Science,<ref name="father of science Einstein">[[#Reference-Einstein-1954|Einstein (1954, p. 271)]]. "Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether."</ref><ref>Stephen Hawking, [http://www.medici.org/press/galileo-and-birth-modern-science ''Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324162930/http://www.medici.org/press/galileo-and-birth-modern-science |date=2012-03-24 }}, American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36</ref>
[[Galileo Galilei]], made key improvements on the thermometer and telescope which allowed him to observe and clearly describe the [[Solar System]]. [[René Descartes|Descartes]] was not only a pioneer of [[analytic geometry]] but formulated a [[theory]] of [[mechanics]]<ref>{{cite book | title = Exploring the Limits of Preclassical Mechanics: A Study of Conceptual Development in Early Modern Science: Free Fall and Compounded Motion in the Work of Descartes, Galileo and Beeckman | publisher = Springer Science & Business Media | year = 2004 | page = 6 | chapter = Introduction | author = Peter Damerow}}</ref> and advanced ideas about the origins of [[muscle contraction|animal movement]] and [[perception]]. [[Visual perception|Vision]] interested the [[physicist]]s [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Young]] and [[Hermann von Helmholtz|Helmholtz]], who also studied [[optics]], [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]] and [[music]]. [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] extended Descartes's mathematics by inventing [[calculus]] (at the same time as [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]]). He provided a comprehensive formulation of [[classical mechanics]] and investigated [[light]] and optics. [[Joseph Fourier|Fourier]] founded a new branch of mathematics — [[Fourier series|infinite, periodic series]] — studied [[heat]] [[flux#Flux definition and theorems|flow]] and [[infrared|infrared radiation]], and discovered the [[greenhouse effect]]. [[Girolamo Cardano]], [[Blaise Pascal]] [[Pierre de Fermat]], [[John von Neumann|Von Neumann]], [[Alan Turing|Turing]], [[Aleksandr Khinchin|Khinchin]], [[Andrey Markov|Markov]] and [[Norbert Wiener|Wiener]], all mathematicians, made major contributions to science and [[probability|probability theory]], including the ideas behind [[computer]]s, and some of the foundations of [[statistical mechanics]] and [[quantum mechanics]]. Many mathematically inclined scientists, including [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], were also [[musician]]s.

There are many compelling stories in [[medicine]] and [[biology]], such as the development of ideas about the circulation of [[blood]] from [[Galen]] to [[William Harvey|Harvey]]. Some scholars and historians attributes [[Christianity]] to having contributed to the rise of the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Harrison|first1=Peter|title=Christianity and the rise of western science|website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=8 May 2012|url=http://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm|access-date=28 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{citation | last = Noll | first = Mark | author-link = Mark Noll | title = Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology" | publisher = The Biologos Foundation | page = 4 | url = http://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf | access-date = 14 January 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150322013257/http://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf | archive-date = 22 March 2015 | url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last1 = Lindberg | first1 = David C. | author-link = David C. Lindberg | last2 = Numbers | first2 = Ronald L. | author2-link = Ronald L. Numbers | title = God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science | place = Berkeley and Los Angeles | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1986 | chapter = Introduction | pages = 5, 12 | isbn = 978-0-520-05538-4}}</ref><ref name="Gilley1">{{cite book |last= Gilley |first= Sheridan |others=Brian Stanley|title=The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities C.1815-c.1914 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-81456-1|page=164}}</ref><ref>Lindberg, David. (1992) ''The Beginnings of Western Science''  University of Chicago Press. p. 204.</ref>

===Age of Enlightenment===
During the age of Enlightenment, [[Luigi Galvani]], the pioneer of [[bioelectromagnetics]], discovered animal electricity. He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body. Charges could make frog legs jump even if the legs were no longer attached to a frog. While cutting a frog leg, Galvani's steel scalpel touched a brass hook that was holding the leg in place. The leg twitched. Further experiments confirmed this effect, and Galvani was convinced that he was seeing the effects of what he called animal electricity, the life force within the muscles of the frog. At the [[University of Pavia]], Galvani's colleague [[Alessandro Volta]] was able to reproduce the results, but was sceptical of Galvani's explanation.<ref name=Routledge>{{cite book|title=A popular history of science|author=Robert Routledge|url=https://archive.org/details/b24869880|page=[https://archive.org/details/b24869880/page/553 553] |edition=2nd|year=1881|publisher=G. Routledge and Sons|isbn=0-415-38381-1}}</ref>

[[Lazzaro Spallanzani]] is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences. His investigations have exerted a lasting influence on the medical sciences. He made important contributions to the experimental study of bodily functions and animal reproduction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-3.unipv.it/webbio/spalla99/spallanz.htm|title=Spallanzani - Uomo e scienziato|publisher=Il museo di Lazzaro Spallanzani|language=it|access-date=2010-06-07|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603044941/http://www-3.unipv.it/webbio/spalla99/spallanz.htm|archive-date=2010-06-03}}</ref>

[[Francesco Redi]] discovered that [[microorganism]]s can cause [[disease]].

===19th century===
Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were still referred to as "[[Natural philosophy|natural philosophers]]" or "men of science".<ref>Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science. {{cite web |url=http://www.rpi.edu/~rosss2/book.html |title=Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science |access-date=2008-01-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309165847/http://www.rpi.edu/~rosss2/book.html |archive-date=2008-03-09 }}</ref><ref>Friedrich Ueberweg, History of Philosophy: From Thales to the Present Time. C. Scribner's sons v.1, 1887</ref><ref>Steve Fuller, Kuhn VS. Popper: The Struggle For The Soul Of Science. Columbia University Press 2004. Page 43. {{ISBN|0-231-13428-2}}</ref><ref>''Science'' by American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1917. v.45 1917 Jan-Jun. [https://books.google.com/books?id=4gcuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA274 Page 274] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302180539/https://books.google.com/books?id=4gcuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA274&as_brr=1&ei=_TiNR7znI5mmiQGXo4TEBQ |date=2017-03-02 }}.</ref>

English philosopher and historian of science [[William Whewell]] coined the term ''scientist'' in 1833, and it first appeared in print in Whewell's anonymous 1834 review of [[Mary Somerville]]'s ''[[On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences]]'' published in the ''[[Quarterly Review]]''.<ref name=Ross1962>{{Cite journal| author = Ross, Sydney | year = 1962 | title = Scientist: The story of a word | journal = [[Annals of Science]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 65–85 | doi = 10.1080/00033796200202722| doi-access = free }} To be exact, the person coined the term ''scientist'' was referred to in Whewell 1834 only as "some ingenious gentleman." Ross added a comment that this "some ingenious gentleman" was Whewell himself, without giving the reason for the identification. Ross 1962, p.72.</ref> Whewell wrote of "an increasing proclivity of separation and dismemberment" in the sciences; while highly specific terms proliferated—chemist, mathematician, naturalist—the broad term "philosopher" was no longer satisfactory to group together those who pursued science, without the caveats of "natural" or "experimental" philosopher. Whewell compared these increasing divisions with Somerville's aim of "[rendering] a most important service to science" "by showing how detached branches have, in the history of science, united by the discovery of general principles."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Whewell |first1=William |editor1-last=Murray |editor1-first=John |title=On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences By Mrs. Sommerville |journal=The Quarterly Review |issue=March & June 1834 |volume=LI |pages=54–68}}</ref> Whewell reported in his review that members of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] had been complaining at recent meetings about the lack of a good term for "students of the knowledge of the material world collectively." Alluding to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman proposed that, by analogy with ''artist'', they might form [the word] ''scientist'', and added that there could be no scruple in making free with this term since we already have such words as ''[[economist]]'', and ''[[atheist]]''—but this was not generally palatable".<ref name=Holmes>{{cite book |last1= Holmes|first1= R|title= The age of wonder: How the romantic generation discovered the beauty and terror of science|year= 2008|publisher= Harper Press|location= London|isbn= 978-0-00-714953-7|page= 449}}</ref>

Whewell proposed the word again more seriously (and not anonymously) in his 1840<ref name=Whewell>{{cite book |last1=Whewell|first=William|title=The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences Volume 1|location=Cambridge|page=cxiii}} or {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyinduc01whewgoog |title=The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences: Founded Upon Their History, Vol. 2 |last1=Whewell |first1=William |year=1847|page=[https://archive.org/details/philosophyinduc01whewgoog/page/n580 560]|publisher=New York, Johnson Reprint Corp. }}.  In the 1847 second edition, moved to volume 2 page 560.</ref> ''The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences'':
{{blockquote|The terminations ''ize'' (rather than ''ise''), ''ism'', and ''ist'', are applied to words of all origins: thus we have to ''pulverize'', to ''colonize'', ''Witticism'', ''Heathenism'', ''Journalist'', ''Tobacconist''. Hence we may make such words when they are wanted. As we cannot use ''physician'' for a cultivator of physics, I have called him a ''Physicist''. We need very much a name to describe a cultivator of science in general. I should incline to call him a ''Scientist''. Thus we might say, that as an Artist is a Musician, Painter, or Poet, a Scientist is a Mathematician, Physicist, or Naturalist.}}
He also proposed the term ''physicist'' at the same time, as a counterpart to the French word ''physicien''. Neither term gained wide acceptance until decades later; ''scientist'' became a common term in the late 19th century in the United States and around the turn of the 20th century in [[Great Britain]].<ref name=Ross1962/><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.victorianweb.org/science/whewell.html|title= William Whewell (1794-1866) gentleman of science|access-date= 2007-05-19|url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070625171128/http://www.victorianweb.org/science/whewell.html|archive-date= 2007-06-25}}</ref><ref>Tamara Preaud, Derek E. Ostergard, The Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory. Yale University Press 1997. 416 pages. {{ISBN|0-300-07338-0}} Page 36.</ref> By the twentieth century, the modern notion of science as a special brand of information about the world, practiced by a distinct group and pursued through a unique method, was essentially in place.

===20th century===
[[Marie Curie]] became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize and the first person to win it twice. Her efforts led to the development of nuclear energy and Radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer. In 1922, she was appointed a member of the International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the League of Nations. She campaigned for scientist's right to patent their discoveries and inventions. She also campaigned for free access to international scientific literature and for internationally recognized scientific symbols.