Editing Semantic network (section)

== History ==
Examples of the use of semantic networks in [[logic]], [[Directed acyclic graph|directed acyclic graphs]] as a mnemonic tool, dates back centuries, the earliest documented use being the Greek philosopher [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]]'s commentary on [[Aristotle]]'s [[Categories (Aristotle)|categories]] in the third century AD.

In [[History of computing|computing history]], "Semantic Nets" for the [[propositional calculus]] were first [[Implementation|implemented]] for [[computers]] by [[Richard H. Richens]] of the [[Cambridge Language Research Unit]] in 1956 as an "[[Pivot language|interlingua]]" for [[machine translation]] of [[natural language]]s,<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Lehmann |editor1-first=Fritz |editor2-last=Rodin |editor2-first=Ervin Y. |date=1992 |title=Semantic networks in artificial intelligence |series=International series in modern applied mathematics and computer science |volume=24 |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=[[Pergamon Press]] |isbn=978-0080420127 |oclc=26391254 |page=6 |quote=The first semantic network for computers was Nude, created by R. H. Richens of the Cambridge Language Research Unit in 1956 as an interlingua for machine translation of natural languages.}}</ref> although the importance of this work and the Cambridge Language Research Unit was only belatedly realized.

Semantic networks were also independently implemented by Robert F. Simmons<ref name='Simmons1963'>{{cite journal | title=Synthetic language behavior | journal=Data Processing Management | year=1963 | last=Robert F. Simmons |volume=5 |issue=12 |pages=11–18}}</ref> and Sheldon Klein, using the [[First-order logic|first-order predicate calculus]] as a base, after being inspired by a demonstration of [[Victor Yngve]]. The "line of research was originated by the first President of the [[Association for Computational Linguistics]], Victor Yngve, who in 1960 had published descriptions of [[Algorithm|algorithms]] for using a [[phrase structure grammar]] to generate syntactically well-formed nonsense sentences. Sheldon Klein and I about 1962–1964 were fascinated by the technique and generalized it to a method for controlling the sense of what was generated by respecting the semantic dependencies of words as they occurred in text."<ref>Simmons, [https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P82-1022 "Themes From 1972"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901171738/https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P82-1022 |date=1 September 2019 }}, ''ACL Anthology'', 1982</ref> Other researchers, most notably [[M. Ross Quillian]]<ref name='Quillian1963'>Quillian, R. A notation for representing conceptual information: An application to semantics and mechanical English para- phrasing. SP-1395, System Development Corporation, Santa Monica, 1963.</ref> and others at [[System Development Corporation]] helped contribute to their work in the early 1960s as part of the SYNTHEX project. It's these publications at System Development Corporation that most modern derivatives of the term "semantic network" cite as their background. Later prominent works were done by [[Allan M. Collins]] and Quillian (e.g., Collins and Quillian;<ref name='Collins1969'>{{cite journal | title=Retrieval time from semantic memory | journal=Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior | year=1969 | last1=Allan M. Collins |author2= M. R. Quillian |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=240–247 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(69)80069-1  }}</ref><ref name='Collins1970'>{{cite journal |title=Does category size affect categorization time? |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior |year=1970 |last=Allan M. Collins|author2=M. Ross Quillian  |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=432–438 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80084-6 }}</ref> Collins and Loftus<ref name='Collins1975'>{{cite journal |title=A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing |journal=Psychological Review |year=1975 |last=Allan M. Collins |author2=Elizabeth F. Loftus |volume=82 |issue=6 |doi=10.1037/0033-295x.82.6.407 |pages=407–428 |s2cid=14217893 }}</ref> Quillian<ref>Quillian, M. R. (1967). Word concepts: A theory and simulation of some basic semantic capabilities. Behavioral Science, 12(5), 410–430.</ref><ref>Quillian, M. R. (1968). Semantic memory. Semantic information processing, 227–270.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Quillian | first1 = M. R. | year = 1969 | title = The teachable language comprehender: a simulation program and theory of language | journal = Communications of the ACM | volume = 12 | issue = 8| pages = 459–476 | doi=10.1145/363196.363214| s2cid = 15304609 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>Quillian, R. Semantic Memory. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Carnegie Institute of Technology, 1966.</ref>). Still later in 2006, Hermann Helbig fully described [[MultiNet]].<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Helbig | first1 = H. | year = 2006 | title = Knowledge Representation and the Semantics of Natural Language | url = http://14.139.206.50:8080/jspui/bitstream/1/2412/1/Helbig,%20Hermann%20-%20Knowledge%20Representation%20and%20the%20Semantics%20of%20Natural%20Language.pdf | isbn = 978-3540244615 | access-date = 19 March 2018 | archive-date = 30 August 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170830103805/http://14.139.206.50:8080/jspui/bitstream/1/2412/1/Helbig,%20Hermann%20-%20Knowledge%20Representation%20and%20the%20Semantics%20of%20Natural%20Language.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>

In the late 1980s, two universities in the [[Netherlands]], [[University of Groningen|Groningen]] and [[University of Twente|Twente]], jointly began a project called ''Knowledge Graphs'', which are semantic networks but with the added constraint that edges are restricted to be from a limited set of possible relations, to facilitate [[Graph algebra|algebras on the graph]].<ref>{{cite book
|editor-last=Van de Riet
|editor-first=R. P.
|title=Linguistic Instruments in Knowledge Engineering 
|author-last=James
|author-first=P.
|chapter=Knowledge Graphs
|date=1992
|chapter-url=http://www.stokman.org/artikel/92Jame.KnowGraphs.LIKE.pdf
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811111559if_/http://stokman.org/artikel/92Jame.KnowGraphs.LIKE.pdf
|archive-date=2016-08-11
|publisher=Elsevier Science Publishers
|page=98
|isbn=978-0444883940
}}
Note from the cited chapter: ''The author's name P. James is a pseudonym for the group of researchers that took part in or are still taking part in the project "Knowledge Graphs", that was started as a joint project of the universities of Groningen and Twente in the Netherlands. Alstein, de By, Edens, and Miltenburg were students that contributed to the project. In the course of the project, members of the project group have been R.R. Bakker, H. van den Berg, C. Hoede, M.A.W. Houtsma, H.J. Smit, F.N. Stokman, P.H. de Vries, and M. Willems.''
<!-- The 'cite book' template has no 'note' field. Placing the above note here, outside the template but inside the 'ref' tags works. Noting that the author's name is a pseudonym seems relevant; and we might as well quote the remainder of the paragraph, which contains relevant names. Down here in the footnotes it'll be in nobody's way.-->
</ref> In the subsequent decades, the distinction between semantic networks and [[knowledge graph]]s was blurred.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15PDCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA444 |title=Path-Based Semantic Relatedness on Linked Data and Its Use to Word and Entity Disambiguation |last1=Hulpus |first1=Ioana |last2=Prangnawarat |first2=Narumol |date=2015 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |book-title=The Semantic Web – ISWC 2015: 14th International Semantic Web Conference, Bethlehem, PA, USA, October 11–15, 2015, Proceedings, Part 1 |pages=444 |isbn=9783319250076 |conference=[[International Semantic Web Conference]] 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.authorea.com/users/6341/articles/107281 |title=What is a Knowledge Graph? |last1=McCusker |first1=James P. |last2=Chastain |first2=Katherine |date=April 2016 |website=authorea.com |access-date=15 June 2016 |quote="usage [of the term 'knowledge graph'] has evolved" |archive-date=17 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617061900/https://www.authorea.com/users/6341/articles/107281 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2012, [[Google]] gave their knowledge graph the name [[Knowledge Graph]].

The semantic link network was systematically studied as a [[Semantic social network|semantic social networking]] method. Its basic model consists of semantic nodes, semantic links between nodes, and a semantic space that defines the semantics of nodes and links and reasoning rules on semantic links.  The systematic theory and model was published in 2004.<ref>H. Zhuge, Knowledge Grid, World Scientific Publishing Co. 2004.</ref> This research direction can trace to the definition of inheritance rules for efficient model retrieval in 1998<ref>H. Zhuge, Inheritance rules for flexible model retrieval. Decision Support Systems 22(4)(1998)379–390</ref> and the Active Document Framework ADF.<ref>H. Zhuge, Active e-document framework ADF: model and tool. Information & Management 41(1): 87–97 (2003)</ref> Since 2003, research has developed toward social semantic networking.<ref>H.Zhuge and L.Zheng, Ranking Semantic-linked Network, WWW 2003</ref> This work is a systematic innovation at the age of the [[World Wide Web]] and global social networking rather than an application or simple extension of the Semantic Net (Network). Its purpose and scope are different from that of the Semantic Net (or network).<ref>H.Zhuge, The Semantic Link Network, in The Knowledge Grid: Toward Cyber-Physical Society, World Scientific Publishing Co. 2012.</ref> The rules for reasoning and evolution and automatic discovery of implicit links play an important role in the Semantic Link Network.<ref>H. Zhuge, L. Zheng, N. Zhang and X. Li, An automatic semantic relationships discovery approach. WWW 2004: 278–279.</ref><ref>H. Zhuge, Communities and Emerging Semantics in Semantic Link Network: Discovery and Learning, IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 21(6)(2009)785–799.</ref> Recently it has been developed to support Cyber-Physical-Social Intelligence.<ref>H.Zhuge, Semantic linking through spaces for cyber-physical-socio intelligence: A methodology, Artificial Intelligence, 175(2011)988–1019.</ref> It was used for creating a general summarization method.<ref>H. Zhuge, Multi-Dimensional Summarization in Cyber-Physical Society, Morgan Kaufmann, 2016.</ref> The self-organised Semantic Link Network was integrated with a multi-dimensional category space to form a semantic space to support advanced applications with multi-dimensional abstractions and self-organised semantic links<ref>H. Zhuge, The Web Resource Space Model, Springer, 2008.</ref><ref>H.Zhuge and Y.Xing, Probabilistic Resource Space Model for Managing Resources in Cyber-Physical Society, IEEE Transactions on Service Computing, 5(3)(2012)404–421.</ref> It has been verified that Semantic Link Network play an important role in understanding and representation through [[Automatic summarization|text summarisation]] applications.<ref>X. Sun and H. Zhuge, Summarization of Scientific Paper through Reinforcement Ranking on Semantic Link Network, IEEE ACCESS, 2018, {{doi|10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2856530}}.</ref><ref>M.Cao, X.Sun and H. Zhuge, The contribution of cause-effect link to representing the core of scientific paper—The role of Semantic Link Network, PLOS ONE, 2018, {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0199303}}.</ref> Semantic Link Network has been extended from cyberspace to cyber-physical-social space. Competition relation and symbiosis relation as well as their roles in evolving society were studied in the emerging topic: Cyber-Physical-Social Intelligence<ref>H. Zhuge, Cyber-Physical-Social Intelligence on Human-Machine-Nature Symbiosis, Springer, 2020.</ref>

More specialized forms of semantic networks has been created for specific use. For example, in 2008, Fawsy Bendeck's PhD thesis formalized the [[semantic similarity network|Semantic Similarity Network]] (SSN) that contains specialized relationships and propagation algorithms to simplify the [[semantic similarity]] representation and calculations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bendeck |first=Fawsy |date=2008 |title=WSM-P workflow semantic matching platform |location=München |publisher=Verl. Dr. Hut |isbn=9783899638547 |oclc=501314022}}</ref>