Editing Shinto (section)

==Definition==
[[File:YobitoTorii.jpg|thumb|A torii gateway to the Yobito Shrine ({{lang|ja-Latn|Yobito-jinja}}) in Abashiri City, [[Hokkaido]]]]
There is no universally agreed definition of Shinto.{{sfnm|1a1=Bocking|1y=1997|1p=viii|2a1=Rots|2y=2015|2p=211}} According to Joseph Cali and John Dougill, if there was "one single, broad definition of Shinto" that could be put forward, it would be that "Shinto is a belief in {{lang|ja-Latn|[[kami]]}}", the supernatural entities at the centre of the religion.{{sfn|Cali|Dougill|2013|p=13}} The Japanologist [[Helen Hardacre]] wrote that "Shinto encompasses doctrines, institutions, ritual, and communal life based on {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}} worship",{{sfn|Hardacre|2017|p=1}} while the scholar of religion [[Inoue Nobutaka]] observed that the term "Shinto" was "often used" in "reference to {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}} worship and related theologies, rituals and practices".{{sfn|Inoue|2003|p=1}} Various scholars have referred to practitioners of Shinto as ''Shintoists'', although this term has no direct translation in the [[Japanese language]].{{sfn|Picken|1994|p=xviii}}

Scholars have debated at what point in history it is legitimate to start talking about Shinto as a specific phenomenon. The scholar of religion [[Ninian Smart]] suggested that one could "speak of the {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}} religion of Japan, which lived symbiotically with organized Buddhism, and only later was institutionalized as Shinto."{{sfn|Smart|1998|p=135}} While several institutions and practices now associated with Shinto existed in Japan by the 8th century,{{sfn|Hardacre|2017|p=18}} various scholars have argued that Shinto as a distinct religion was essentially "invented" during the 19th century, in Japan's [[Meiji era]].{{sfn|Breen|Teeuwen|2010|p=7}} The scholar of religion Brian Bocking stressed that, especially when dealing with periods before the Meiji era, the term ''Shinto'' should "be approached with caution".{{sfn|Bocking|1997|p=174}} Inoue Nobutaka stated that "Shinto cannot be considered as a single religious system that existed from the ancient to the modern period",{{sfn|Inoue|2003|p=5}} while the historian [[Kuroda Toshio]] noted that "before modern times Shinto did not exist as an independent religion".{{sfn|Kuroda|1981|p=3}}

===Categorisation===
Many scholars describe Shinto as a [[religion]],{{sfnm|1a1=Picken|1y=1994|1p=xvii|2a1=Nelson|2y=1996|2p=26}} a term first translated into Japanese as ''shūkyō'' around the time of the [[Meiji Restoration]].{{sfn|Azegami|2012|p=68}} Some practitioners instead view Shinto as a "way",{{sfnm|1a1=Picken|1y=1994|1p=xxiv|2a1=Cali|2a2=Dougill|2y=2013|2p=13}} thus characterising it more as custom or [[tradition]],{{sfn|Breen|2010|p=69}} partly as an attempt to circumvent the modern [[separation of religion and state]] and restore Shinto's historical links with the Japanese state.{{sfn|Picken|1994|pp=xxiv–xxv}} Moreover, many of the categories of religion and religiosity defined in [[Western world|Western culture]] "do not readily apply" to Shinto.{{sfn|Picken|1994|p=xix}} Unlike religions familiar in Western countries, such as [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], Shinto has no single founder,{{sfnm|1a1=Offner|1y=1979|1p=191|2a1=Littleton|2y=2002|2p=6|3a1=Picken|3y=2011|3p=1|4a1=Cali|4a2=Dougill|4y=2013|4p=13}} nor any single canonical text.{{sfn|Offner|1979|p=191}} Western religions tend to stress exclusivity, but in Japan, it has long been considered acceptable to practice different religious traditions simultaneously.{{sfn|Picken|1994|p=xxx}} Japanese religion is therefore highly [[Religious pluralism|pluralistic]].{{sfn|Picken|2011|p=48}} Shinto is often cited alongside [[Buddhism]] as one of Japan's two main religions,{{sfn|Cali|Dougill|2013|p=7}} and the two often differ in focus, with Buddhism emphasising the idea of the cessation of suffering, while Shinto focuses on adapting to life's pragmatic requirements.{{sfnm|1a1=Nelson|1y=1996|1p=30|2a1=Littleton|2y=2002|2p=10}} Shinto has integrated elements from religions imported from mainland Asia, such as Buddhism, [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Chinese fortune telling|Chinese divination]] practices,{{sfnm|1a1=Kitagawa|1y=1987|1p=139|2a1=Cali|2a2=Dougill|2y=2013|2p=13}} and shares features like its polytheism with other [[East Asian religions]].{{sfn|Inoue|2003|p=7}}

{{Quote box
| quote = Some scholars suggest we talk about types of Shintō such as popular Shintō, folk Shintō, domestic Shintō, sectarian Shintō, imperial house Shintō, shrine Shintō, state Shintō, new Shintō religions, etc. rather than regard Shintō as a single entity. This approach can be helpful but begs the question of what is meant by 'Shintō' in each case, particularly since each category incorporates or has incorporated Buddhist, Confucian, Taoist, folk religious and other elements.
| source=— Scholar of religion Brian Bocking{{sfn|Bocking|1997|pp=173–174}}
| align = left
| width = 25em
}}

Scholars of religion have debated how to classify Shinto. Inoue considered it part of "the family of East-Asian religions".{{sfn|Inoue|2003|p=10}} The philosopher [[Stuart D. B. Picken]] suggested that Shinto be classed as a [[world religion]],{{sfn|Picken|1994|p=xxv}} while the historian [[H. Byron Earhart]] called it a "major religion".{{sfn|Earhart|2004|p=31}} Shinto is also often described as an [[indigenous religion]],{{sfnm|1a1=Kuroda|1y=1981|1p=1|2a1=Nelson|2y=1996|2p=7|3a1=Rots|3y=2015|3p=211}} although this generates debates over the different definitions of "indigenous" in the Japanese context.{{sfn|Nelson|1996|p=7}} The notion of Shinto as Japan's "indigenous religion" stemmed from the growth of modern nationalism between the [[Edo period|Edo]] and Meiji periods;{{sfn|Kuroda|1981|p=19}} this view promoted the idea that Shinto's origins were prehistoric and that it represented something like the "underlying will of Japanese culture".{{sfn|Kuroda|1981|pp=1–2}} The prominent Shinto theologian Sokyo Ono, for instance, said {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}} worship was "an expression" of the Japanese "native racial faith which arose in the mystic days of remote antiquity" and that it was "as indigenous as the people that brought the Japanese nation into existence".{{sfn|Kitagawa|1987|p=xviii}} Many scholars regard this classification as inaccurate. Earhart noted that Shinto, in having absorbed much Chinese and Buddhist influence, was "too complex to be labelled simply [as an] indigenous religion".{{sfn|Earhart|2004|p=31}} In the early 21st century it became increasingly common for practitioners to call Shinto a [[nature religion]],{{sfn|Rots|2015|p=210}} which critics saw as a strategy to disassociate the tradition from controversial issues surrounding militarism and imperialism.{{sfn|Rots|2015|p=210}}

Shinto displays substantial local variation;{{sfn|Offner|1979|p=215}} the anthropologist John K. Nelson noted it was "not a unified, monolithic entity that has a single center and system all its own".{{sfn|Nelson|1996|p=7}} [[Shinto sects and schools|Different types of Shinto]] have been identified. "Shrine Shinto" refers to the practices centred around shrines,{{sfnm|1a1=Offner|1y=1979|1p=192|2a1=Nelson|2y=1996|2p=7}} and "Domestic Shinto" to the ways in which {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}} are venerated in the home.{{sfn|Offner|1979|p=192}} Some scholars have used the term "Folk Shinto" to designate localised Shinto practices,{{sfnm|1a1=Picken|1y=2011|1p=89|2a1=Cali|2a2=Dougill|2y=2013|2p=14}} or practices outside of an institutionalised setting.{{sfn|Nelson|1996|p=7}} In various eras of the past, there was also a "[[State Shinto]]", in which Shinto beliefs and practices were closely interlinked with the Japanese state.{{sfnm|1a1=Offner|1y=1979|1p=192|2a1=Nelson|2y=1996|2p=7}} In representing "a portmanteau term" for many varied traditions across Japan, the term "Shinto" is similar to the term "[[Hinduism]]", used to describe varied traditions across South Asia.{{sfn|Bocking|1997|p=viii}}

===Etymology===
[[File:Takachiho-gawara Kirishima City Kagoshima Pref02n4050.jpg|thumb|A torii gate at the [[Takachiho-gawara]] shrine near [[Kirishima, Kagoshima|Kirishima]], [[Kagoshima Prefecture]], which is associated with the mythological tale of [[Ninigi-no-Mikoto]]'s [[tenson kōrin|descent to earth]].]]
The term ''Shinto'' is often translated into English as "the way of the {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}}",{{sfnm|1a1=Offner|1y=1979|1p=193|2a1=Kitagawa|2y=1987|2p=139|3a1=Bocking|3y=1997|3p=173|4a1=Nelson|4y=2000|4p=14|5a1=Earhart|5y=2004|5p=2|6a1=Picken|6y=2011|6p=9}} although its meaning has varied throughout Japanese history.{{sfnm|1a1=Kuroda|1y=1981|1p=4|2a1=Bocking|2y=1997|2pp=viii, 173}} Other terms are sometimes used synonymously with "Shinto"; these include ''{{lang|ja-Latn|kami no michi}}'' ({{lang|ja|神の道}}, "the way of the {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}}"), ''{{lang|ja-Latn|kannagara no michi}}'' ({{lang|ja|神ながらの道}}, also written {{lang|ja|随神の道}} or {{lang|ja|惟神の道}}, "the way of the {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}} from time immemorial"), ''{{lang|ja-Latn|Kodō}}'' ({{lang|ja|古道}}, "the ancient way"), ''{{lang|ja-Latn|Daidō}}'' ({{lang|ja|大道}}, "the great way"), and ''{{lang|ja-Latn|Teidō}}'' ({{lang|ja|帝道}}, "the imperial way").{{sfnm|1a1=Picken|1y=1994|1p=xxiv|2a1=Picken|2y=2011|2p=64}}

The term ''Shinto'' derives from the combination of two Chinese characters: ''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|shin]]'' ({{script|Hani|神}}), which means "spirit" or "god", and ''[[Dao|tō]]'' ({{script|Hani|道}}), which means "way", "road" or "path".{{sfnm|1a1=Kitagawa|1y=1987|1p=139|2a1=Littleton|2y=2002|2p=6|3a1=Picken|3y=2011|3p=9}} "Shintō" ({{script|Hani|神道}}, "the Way of the Gods") was a term already used in the ''[[Book of Changes]]'' referring to the divine order of nature.<ref>''Commentary on Judgment'' about ''Book of Changes'' 20, ''Viewing'': "Viewing the Way of the Gods (''Shintō''), one finds that the four seasons never deviate, and so the sage establishes his teachings on the basis of this Way, and all under Heaven submit to him".</ref> Around the time of the spread of [[Buddhism]] in the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE – 220 CE), it was used to distinguish [[Chinese folk religion|indigenous Chinese religions]] from the imported religion. [[Ge Hong]] used it in his ''[[Baopuzi]]'' as a synonym for [[Taoism]].<ref>Herman Ooms. ''Imperial Politics and Symbolics in Ancient Japan: The Tenmu Dynasty, 650–800''. University of Hawaii Press, 2009. {{ISBN|0824832353}}. p. 166</ref>

The [[Chinese language|Chinese]] term {{script|Hani|神道}} ([[Middle Chinese|MC]] ''zyin daw<sup>X</sup>'') was originally adopted into Japanese as ''Jindō'';{{sfn|Teeuwen|2002|p=243}} this was possibly first used as a Buddhist term to refer to non-Buddhist deities.{{sfn|Teeuwen|2002|p=256}} Among the earliest known appearances of the term ''Shinto'' in Japan is in the 8th-century text, {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Nihon Shoki]]}}.{{sfnm|1a1=Teeuwen|1y=2002|1p=236|2a1=Hardacre|2y=2017|2p=41}} Here, it may be a generic term for popular belief,{{sfnm|1a1=Kuroda|1y=1981|1pp=4–5|2a1=Teeuwen|2y=2002|2p=237}} or alternatively reference Taoism, as many Taoist practices had recently been imported from mainland Asia.{{sfnm|1a1=Kuroda|1y=1981|1p=6|2a1=Teeuwen|2y=2002|2p=237|3a1=Hardacre|3y=2017|3p=42}} In these early Japanese uses, the word ''Shinto'' did not apply to a distinct religious tradition nor to anything uniquely Japanese;{{sfn|Kuroda|1981|p=7}} the 11th century ''[[Konjaku Monogatarishū|Konjaku monogatarishui]]'' for instance refers to a woman in China practicing ''Shinto'', and also to people in India worshipping {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}}, indicating these terms were being used to describe religions outside Japan itself.{{sfn|Kuroda|1981|pp=9–10}}

In medieval Japan, {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}}-worship was generally seen as being part of [[Japanese Buddhism]], with the {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}} themselves often interpreted as [[Buddhas]].{{sfn|Kuroda|1981|pp=11, 12}} At this point, the term ''Shinto'' increasingly referred to "the authority, power, or activity of a {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}}, being a {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}}, or, in short, the state or attributes of a {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}}."{{sfn|Kuroda|1981|p=10}} It appears in this form in texts such as ''{{lang|ja-Latn|Nakatomi no harai kunge}}'' and ''[[Shintōshū]]'' tales.{{sfn|Kuroda|1981|p=10}} In the ''[[Nippo Jisho|Japanese Portuguese Dictionary]]'' of 1603, ''Shinto'' is defined as referring to "{{lang|ja-Latn|kami}} or matters pertaining to {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}}."{{sfn|Kuroda|1981|pp=10–11}} The term ''Shinto'' became common in the 15th century.{{sfn|Hardacre|2017|p=42}} During the late Edo period, the {{lang|ja-Latn|[[kokugaku]]}} scholars began using the term ''Shinto'' to describe what they believed was an ancient, enduring and indigenous Japanese tradition that predated Buddhism; they argued that ''Shinto'' should be used to distinguish {{lang|ja-Latn|kami}} worship from traditions like Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism.{{sfnm|1a1=Kuroda|1y=1981|1p=19|2a1=Bocking|2y=1997|2p=174}} This use of the term ''Shinto'' became increasingly popular from the 18th century.{{sfn|Bocking|1997|p=174}} The term ''Shinto'' has been commonly used only since the early 20th century, when it superseded the term {{lang|ja-Latn|[[taikyō]]}} ('great religion') as the name for the Japanese state religion.{{sfn|Bocking|1997|p=viii}} In English, the religion is also called "Shintoism",<ref>{{Cite OED|term=Shintoism|id=4027165528|access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite MW|Shinto|access-date=26 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|Shintoism}}</ref> although some scholars have argued against the inclusion of the suffix ''[[-ism]]'' due to Shinto's lack of codified doctrine.{{Sfn|Jensen|Blok|2013|p=110}}{{Sfn|Loveday|2019|p=104}}