Editing Shortening (section)

==History and market==
[[Image:Snowdrift shortening.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A 1918 advertisement for shortening]]
Originally shortening was synonymous with [[lard]], but with the invention of [[margarine]] from beef [[tallow]] by French [[chemist]] [[Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès]] in 1869, margarine also came to be included in the term. Since the invention of [[Fat hydrogenation|hydrogenated vegetable oil]] in the early 20th century, "shortening" has come almost exclusively to mean hydrogenated [[vegetable oil]]. 

[[Fat hydrogenation|Hydrogenation]] of organic substances was first developed by the French [[chemist]] [[Paul Sabatier (chemist)|Paul Sabatier]] in 1897, and in 1901 the German chemist [[Wilhelm Normann]] developed the hydrogenation of fats, which he patented in 1902.<ref name="Giants">Jackson & List (2007). [http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?seq_no_115=210614 "Giants of the Past: The Battle Over Hydrogenation (1903–1920)"], ''Inform'' 18.</ref> In 1907, a German chemist, [[Edwin Cuno Kayser]], moved to [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], the home town of [[soap]] manufacturer [[Procter & Gamble]]. He had worked for British soap manufacturer [[Joseph Crosfield and Sons]] and was well acquainted with Normann's process, as Crosfield and Sons owned the British rights to Normann's patent.<ref name="Giants"/> Soon after arriving, Kayser made a business deal with Procter & Gamble, and presented the company with two processes to hydrogenate [[cottonseed oil]], with the intent of creating a raw material for [[soap]].<ref name="Giants"/> Another inventor by the name of Wallace McCaw in Macon, Georgia also played a role in the invention of shortening. In 1905 McCaw patented a process in which he could turn inexpensive and commercially useless cottonseeds into imitation lard and soap.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/annualreportofco1905unit | title=Annual report of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1905 | website=library.si.edu}}</ref> Later in 1909, Procter & Gamble hired McCaw and purchased his patents along with the patents of other scientists working on partial hydrogenation which later helped in the development of "shortening".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Massee |first1=Jordon |title=Accepted Fables |date=4 February 2024 |publisher=Indigo Custom |isbn=9780976287551 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSpiW4kx6WsC&dq=massee+mccaw&pg=PA117}}</ref> Since the product looked like [[lard]], Procter & Gamble instead began selling it as a vegetable fat for cooking purposes in June 1911, calling it "[[Crisco]]", a modification of the phrase "crystallized cottonseed oil".<ref name="Giants"/>
[[File:Trimyristin-3D-vdW.png|right|thumb|250px|A [[triglyceride]] molecule, the main constituent of shortening]]

While similar to lard, vegetable shortening was much cheaper to produce. Shortening also required no [[refrigeration]], which further lowered its costs and increased its appeal in a time when refrigerators were rare. Shortening was also more neutral in flavor than butter and lard which gave it a unique advantage when cooking.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Oliver |first1=Lynne |title=Shortening and Cooking Oils |url=https://www.foodtimeline.org/shortening.html}}</ref> With these advantages, plus an intensive advertisement campaign by Procter & Gamble, Crisco quickly gained popularity in American households.<ref name="Giants"/> The company targeted mothers by presenting shortening as a more economical and cleaner way of preparing meals. Procter & Gamble played into the neutral flavor of shortening as well as the high smoke point. As a result, they claimed that the natural flavors of the meal would shine through and be free of black particles and unruly smells common with other fats.<ref>{{cite web |title=1919 Ad Crisco Woman Cooking Shortening Frying Lard - ORIGINAL ADVERTISING SEP4 |url=https://www.periodpaper.com/products/1919-ad-crisco-woman-cooking-shortening-frying-lard-original-advertising-050557-sep4-063 |publisher=Period Paper |access-date=24 November 2023}}</ref> Procter & Gamble also advertised how economical it was to use shortening, often advertising cheap recipes incorporating shortening to appeal to frugal mothers.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gressle |first1=Lesley |title=933 Crisco Vintage Ad, Advertising Art, Magazine Ad, 1930's Dinner, Advertisement, 1930's Recipes, Great for Framing. |url=https://www.etsy.com/listing/722297439/1933-crisco-vintage-ad-advertising-art |website=Etsy |access-date=25 November 2023}}</ref> As food production became increasingly industrialized and manufacturers sought low-cost raw materials, the use of vegetable shortening also became common in the food industry. In addition, in the US, government-financed surpluses of cottonseed oil, [[corn oil]], and [[soybean]]s also helped lower the cost of vegetable shortening.<ref name="Guardian">The Guardian: [http://environment.guardian.co.uk/food/story/0,,1881919,00.html#article_continue Grease is the Word], Guardian Unlimited, 27 September 2006</ref>

In the late 1990s, vegetable shortening became the subject of some health concerns due to [[partially hydrogenated vegetable oils]] containing [[trans fat|trans fats]], a type found only in small amounts in milk and some other natural foods.  Trans fats have been linked to [[coronary artery disease]] and [[Trans fat#Health risks|other adverse health effects]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yazar |first=Gamze |last2=Rosell |first2=Cristina M. |date=2023 |title=Fat replacers in baked products: their impact on rheological properties and final product quality |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35285734 |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=63 |issue=25 |pages=7653–7676 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2022.2048353 |issn=1549-7852 |pmid=35285734}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bihola |first=Ankit |last2=Chaudhary |first2=M. B. |last3=Bumbadiya |first3=M. R. |last4=Suvera |first4=Priyanka |last5=Adil |first5=Shaikh |date=January 2025 |title=Technological innovations in margarine production: Current trends and future perspectives on trans-fat removal and saturated fat replacement |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39699296 |journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=e70088 |doi=10.1111/1541-4337.70088 |issn=1541-4337 |pmid=39699296}}</ref> Beginning in 2004, the US shortening brand [[Crisco]] was first reformulated to contain less than one gram of trans fat per serving,<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: I can't find the ''Crisco'' green can anywhere |url=http://www.crisco.com/about/shortening_0gramstransfat_faq.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218044416/http://www.crisco.com/about/shortening_0gramstransfat_faq.asp |archive-date=18 February 2008 |publisher=Crisco.com}}</ref> and then, after the US FDA issued a 2018 ban on [[Partially hydrogenated oil|partially hydrogenated oils]], to a trans-fat-free vegetable shortening made from fully hydrogenated [[palm oil]] and some soybean oils to improve the texture.<ref name="Nutritional Information">{{cite web |title=Nutritional Information |url=https://crisco.com/product/all-vegetable-shortening/ |access-date=25 November 2023 |website=Crisco}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Final Determination Regarding Partially Hydrogenated Oils |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2018/05/21/2018-10714/final-determination-regarding-partially-hydrogenated-oils |access-date=14 October 2024 |website=Federal Register}}</ref> Use of palm oil is controversial due to the environmental impact of commercial palm oil production, which is increased by clearing [[Rainforest|rainforests]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Palm Oil |url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/palm-oil |access-date=25 November 2023 |website=World Wildlife Fund}}</ref>  In 2006, UK brand Cookeen was also reformulated to remove trans fats.<ref name="Guardian" />

Crisco remains the best-known brand of shortening in the US, nowadays consisting of a blend of partially and fully hydrogenated soybean and [[palm oil]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crisco.com/Products/ProductDetail.aspx?groupID=17&prodID=315|title=Products - Shortening - All-Vegetable Shortening - Crisco|publisher=Crisco.com|date=30 September 2010|access-date=5 December 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108035356/http://www.crisco.com/products/ProductDetail.aspx?GroupID=17&ProdID=315|archive-date=8 January 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In Ireland and the UK, [[Trex (cooking fat)|Trex]] is a popular brand{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}, while in Australia, [[Copha]] is popular, made primarily from [[coconut oil]].