Open main menu
Home
Random
Recent changes
Special pages
Community portal
Preferences
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Incubator escapee wiki
Search
User menu
Talk
Dark mode
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Editing
Siege
(section)
Warning:
You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you
log in
or
create an account
, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.
Anti-spam check. Do
not
fill this in!
==Ancient period== ===The necessity of city walls=== [[File:Assyrian relief of attack on an enemy town during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III 720-738 BCE from his palace at Kalhu (Nimrud).jpg|thumb|left|Assyrians using siege ladders in a relief of attack on an enemy town during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III 720–738 BCE from his palace at Kalhu (Nimrud)]] The [[Assyria]]ns deployed large labour forces to build new palaces, temples, and defensive walls.{{sfn|Fletcher|Cruickshank|1996|p=20}} Some settlements in the [[Indus Valley civilization]] were also fortified. By about 3500 BC, hundreds of small farming villages dotted the [[Indus River]] floodplain. Many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. The stone and mud brick houses of [[Kot Diji]] were clustered behind massive stone flood dikes and defensive walls, for neighbouring communities quarrelled constantly about the control of prime agricultural land.{{sfn|Stearns|2001|p=17}} [[Mundigak]] (c. 2500 BC) in present-day south-east [[Afghanistan]] has defensive walls and square bastions of [[mudbrick|sun-dried bricks]].{{sfn|Fletcher|Cruickshank|1996|p=20}} City walls and fortifications were essential for the defence of the first cities in the [[ancient Near East]]. The walls were built of mudbricks, stone, wood, or a combination of these materials, depending on local availability. They may also have served the dual purpose of showing potential enemies the might of the kingdom. The great walls surrounding the [[Sumer]]ian city of [[Uruk]] gained a widespread reputation. The walls were {{convert|9.5|km|mi|abbr=on}} in length, and up to {{convert|12|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height. Later, the walls of [[Babylon]], reinforced by towers, moats, and ditches, gained a similar reputation. In [[Anatolia]], the [[Hittites]] built massive stone walls around their cities atop hillsides, taking advantage of the terrain. In [[Shang dynasty]] China, at the site of Ao, large walls were erected in the 15th century BC that had dimensions of {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} in width at the base and enclosed an area of some {{cvt|2100|yd|m|order=flip}} squared.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 43">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 43.</ref> The ancient Chinese capital for the [[Zhao (state)|State of Zhao]], [[Handan]], founded in 386 BC, also had walls that were {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} wide at the base; they were {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall, with two separate sides of its rectangular enclosure at a length of {{cvt|1530|yd|m|order=flip}}.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 3 43"/> The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization showed less effort in constructing defences, as did the [[Minoan civilization]] on [[Crete]]. These civilizations probably relied more on the defence of their outer borders or sea shores. Unlike the ancient Minoan civilization, the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean Greeks]] emphasized the need for fortifications alongside natural defences of mountainous terrain, such as the massive [[Cyclopean masonry|Cyclopean walls]] built at [[Mycenae]] and other adjacent Late Bronze Age (c. 1600–1100 BC) centers of central and southern Greece.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schofield|first1=Louise|title=The Mycenaeans|year=2006|location=Los Angeles, CA|publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum|isbn=978-0-89236-867-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXwzT1048Z4C|page=78}}</ref> ===Archaeological evidence=== {{Unreferenced section|date=September 2022}} [[File:Ramesseum siege of Dapur.jpg|thumb|upright|The Egyptian [[siege of Dapur]] in the 13th century BC, from [[Ramesseum]], [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]]] Although there are depictions of sieges from the ancient Near East in historical sources and in art, there are very few examples of siege systems that have been found archaeologically. Of the few examples, several are noteworthy: * The late 9th-century BC siege system surrounding [[Tell es-Safi]]/[[Gath (city)|Gath]], [[Israel]], consists of a {{cvt|2.5|km|mi}} long siege trench, towers, and other elements, and is the earliest evidence of a [[circumvallation]] system known in the world. It was apparently built by [[Hazael]] of [[Aram Damascus]], as part of his siege and conquest of [[Philistine]] Gath in the late 9th century BC (mentioned in [[II Kings]] 12:18). * The late 8th-century BC siege system surrounding the site of [[Lachish]] (Tell el-Duweir) in Israel, built by [[Sennacherib]] of [[Assyria]] in 701 BC, is not only evident in the archaeological remains, but is described in Assyrian and [[biblical]] sources and in the reliefs of Sennacherib's palace in [[Nineveh]]. * The siege of Alt-[[Paphos]], [[Cyprus]] by the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] army in the 4th century BC. ===Depictions=== The earliest representations of siege warfare have been dated to the [[Protodynastic Period of Egypt]], {{circa|3000 BC}}. These show the symbolic destruction of city walls by divine animals using hoes. The first siege equipment is known from Egyptian tomb reliefs of the 24th century BC, showing Egyptian soldiers storming [[Canaan]]ite town walls on wheeled siege ladders. Later Egyptian temple reliefs of the 13th century BC portray the violent [[siege of Dapur]], a Syrian city, with soldiers climbing scale ladders supported by archers. [[Assyria]]n palace reliefs of the 9th to 7th centuries BC display sieges of several Near Eastern cities. Though a simple battering ram had come into use in the previous millennium, the Assyrians improved siege warfare and used huge wooden tower-shaped battering rams with archers positioned on top. In ancient China, sieges of city walls (along with naval battles) were portrayed on [[bronze]] [[hu (vessel)|'hu' vessels]], like those found in [[Chengdu]], [[Sichuan]] in 1965, which have been dated to the [[Warring States period]] (5th to 3rd centuries BC).<ref name="needham volume 5 part 6 446">Needham, Volume 5, Part 6, 446.</ref> ===Tactics=== ====Offensive==== [[File:Fotothek df tg 0000158 Belagerung ^ Festung ^ Belagerungsmaschine.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.8|Depiction of various [[Siege engine|siege machines]] in the mid-16th century]] An attacker's first act in a siege might be a surprise attack, attempting to overwhelm the defenders before they were ready or were even aware there was a threat. This was how [[William de Forz, 3rd Earl of Albemarle|William de Forz]] captured [[Fotheringhay Castle]] in 1221.<ref name="Oxford">{{cite book|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mzwpq6bLHhMC&pg=RA2-PA266|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533403-6|pages=266–267|year=2010}}</ref> The most common practice of siege warfare was to lay siege and just wait for the surrender of the enemies inside or, quite commonly, to coerce someone inside to betray the fortification. During the medieval period, negotiations would frequently take place during the early part of the siege. An attacker – aware of a prolonged siege's great cost in time, money, and lives – might offer generous terms to a defender who surrendered quickly. The defending troops would be allowed to march away unharmed, often retaining their weapons. However, a garrison commander who was thought to have surrendered too quickly might face execution by his own side for treason.<ref name="Oxford"/> As a siege progressed, the surrounding army would build [[earthworks (engineering)|earthworks]] (a line of [[circumvallation]]) to completely encircle their target, preventing food, water, and other supplies from reaching the besieged city. If sufficiently desperate as the siege progressed, defenders and civilians might have been reduced to eating anything vaguely edible – horses, family pets, the leather from shoes, and even [[Human cannibalism|each other]]. The [[Hittites|Hittite]] siege of a rebellious Anatolian vassal in the 14th century BC ended when the queen mother came out of the city and begged for mercy on behalf of her people. The Hittite campaign against the kingdom of [[Mitanni]] in the 14th century BC bypassed the fortified city of [[Carchemish]]. If the main objective of a campaign was not the conquest of a particular city, it could simply be passed by. When the main objective of the campaign had been fulfilled, the Hittite army returned to Carchemish and the city fell after an eight-day siege. [[Disease]] was another effective siege weapon, although the attackers were often as vulnerable as the defenders. In some instances, catapults or similar weapons were used to fling diseased animals over city walls in an early example of [[biological warfare]]. If all else failed, a besieger could claim the booty of his conquest undamaged, and retain his men and equipment intact, for the price of a well-placed [[bribe]] to a disgruntled gatekeeper. The [[Assyrian siege of Jerusalem]] in the 8th century BC came to an end when the [[Israelites]] bought them off with gifts and tribute, according to the [[Assyria]]n account, or when the Assyrian camp was struck by mass death, according to the [[Bible|Biblical]] account. Due to logistics, long-lasting sieges involving a minor force could seldom be maintained. A besieging army, encamped in possibly squalid field conditions and dependent on the countryside and its own supply lines for food, could very well be threatened with the disease and starvation intended for the besieged. [[File:Trebuchet.jpg|thumb|right|Medieval [[trebuchet]]s could sling about two projectiles per hour at enemy positions.]] To end a siege more rapidly, various methods were developed in ancient and medieval times to counter fortifications, and a large variety of [[siege engine]]s was developed for use by besieging armies. Ladders could be used to [[escalade]] over the defenses. [[Battering ram]]s and [[siege hook]]s could also be used to force through gates or walls, while [[catapult]]s, [[ballista]]e, [[trebuchet]]s, [[mangonel]]s, and [[onager (siege weapon)|onagers]] could be used to launch projectiles to break down a city's fortifications and kill its defenders. A [[siege tower]], a substantial structure built to equal or greater height than the fortification's walls, could allow the attackers to fire down upon the defenders and also advance troops to the wall with less danger than using ladders. In addition to launching projectiles at the fortifications or defenders, it was also quite common to attempt to undermine the fortifications, causing them to collapse. This could be accomplished by digging a tunnel beneath the [[Foundation (engineering)|foundations]] of the walls, and then deliberately collapsing or exploding the tunnel. This process is known as [[Mining (military)|mining]]. The defenders could dig counter-tunnels to cut into the attackers' works and collapse them prematurely. Fire was often used as a weapon when dealing with wooden fortifications. The [[Byzantine Empire|Roman Empire]] used [[Greek fire]], which contained additives that made it hard to extinguish. Combined with a primitive [[flamethrower]], it proved an effective offensive and defensive weapon.<ref>For example, {{harvnb|Roland|1992|pp=660,663}}</ref> A sallying out might also occur with such weapons, or if the siege was of a location on a coastline, from ships launched from the harbor of the location. ====Defensive==== The universal method for defending against siege is the use of fortifications, principally walls and [[ditch (fortification)|ditches]], to supplement natural features. A sufficient supply of food and water was also important to defeat the simplest method of siege warfare: [[starvation]]. On occasion, the defenders would drive 'surplus' civilians out to reduce the demands on stored food and water.{{sfn|Hoskin|Howland|2006|p=105}} During the [[Warring States period]] in China (481–221 BC), warfare lost its honorable, gentlemen's duty that was found in the previous era of the [[Spring and Autumn period]], and became more practical, competitive, cut-throat, and efficient for gaining victory.{{sfn|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=29}} The Chinese invention of the hand-held, trigger-mechanism [[crossbow]] during this period revolutionized warfare, giving greater emphasis to infantry and cavalry and less to traditional [[chariot]] warfare. The philosophically [[pacifist]] [[Mohist]]s (followers of the philosopher [[Mozi]]) of the 5th century BC believed in aiding the defensive warfare of smaller Chinese states against the hostile offensive warfare of larger domineering states. The Mohists were renowned in the smaller states (and the enemies of the larger states) for the inventions of siege machinery to scale or destroy walls. These included traction trebuchet [[catapult]]s, {{convert|8|ft|m|adj=on}} high [[ballista]]s, a wheeled siege ramp with [[grappling hook]]s known as the Cloud Bridge (the protractible, folded ramp slinging forward by means of a counterweight with rope and pulley), and wheeled 'hook-carts' used to latch large iron hooks onto the tops of walls to pull them down.{{sfn|Turnbull|2002|p=40}} [[File:Ireland-Cahir Castle.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Cahir Castle]] in Ireland was besieged and captured three times: [[Siege of Cahir Castle|in 1599]] by the [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]], in 1647 by Lord Inchiquin, and in 1650 by [[Oliver Cromwell]].]] When enemies attempted to dig tunnels under walls for mining or entry into the city, the defenders used large [[bellows]] (the type the Chinese commonly used in heating up a [[blast furnace]] for smelting [[cast iron]]) to pump smoke into the tunnels in order to suffocate the intruders.{{sfn|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=29}} Advances in the prosecution of sieges in ancient and medieval times naturally encouraged the development of a variety of defensive countermeasures. In particular, [[medieval fortification]]s became progressively stronger—for example, the advent of the [[concentric castle]] from the period of the [[Crusades]]—and more dangerous to attackers—witness the increasing use of [[machicolation]]s and [[murder-hole]]s, as well the preparation of [[Early thermal weapons|hot or incendiary substances]].{{sfn|Sellman|1954|p=26}} [[Arrowslit]]s (also called arrow loops or loopholes), [[sally port]]s (airlock-like doors) for sallies and deep water wells were also integral means of resisting siege at this time. Particular attention would be paid to defending entrances, with gates protected by [[drawbridge]]s, [[portcullis]]es, and [[barbican]]s. [[Moat]]s and other water defenses, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders.{{sfn|Sellman|1954|p=22}} In the European [[Middle Ages]], virtually all large cities had city walls—[[Walls of Dubrovnik|Dubrovnik]] in [[Dalmatia]] is a well-preserved example—and more important cities had [[citadel]]s, [[fort]]s, or [[castle]]s. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. Complex systems of tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like [[Tábor]] in [[Bohemia]], similar to those used much later in [[Vietnam]] during the [[Vietnam War]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} Until the invention of [[gunpowder]]-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, cannon and [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s and [[howitzer]]s (in modern times), the traditional methods of defense became less effective against a determined siege.{{sfn|Sellman|1954|pp=44–45}} ===Siege accounts=== {{Unreferenced section|date=September 2022}} Although there are numerous ancient accounts of cities being sacked, few contain any clues to how this was achieved. Some popular tales existed on how the cunning heroes succeeded in their sieges. The best-known is the [[Trojan Horse]] of the [[Trojan War]], and a similar story tells how the [[Canaan]]ite city of [[Jaffa|Joppa]] was conquered by the Egyptians in the 15th century BC. The Biblical [[Book of Joshua]] contains the story of the miraculous [[Battle of Jericho]]. A more detailed historical account from the 8th century BC, called the [[Piye|Piankhi stela]], records how the [[Kingdom of Kush|Nubians]] laid siege to and conquered several Egyptian cities by using battering rams, archers, and slingers and building [[causeway]]s across moats.
Edit summary
(Briefly describe your changes)
By publishing changes, you agree to the
Terms of Use
, and you irrevocably agree to release your contribution under the
CC BY-SA 4.0 License
and the
GFDL
. You agree that a hyperlink or URL is sufficient attribution under the Creative Commons license.
Cancel
Editing help
(opens in new window)