Editing Singing (section)

== Voices ==
[[File:Gray1204.png|right|upright=1.35|thumb]]

In its physical aspect, singing has a well-defined technique that depends on the use of the lungs, which act as an air supply or [[bellows]]; on the [[larynx]], which acts as a [[reed (instrument)|reed]] or [[Vibrator (mechanical)|vibrator]]; on the [[chest]], head cavities and the skeleton, which have the function of an [[amplifier]], as the tube in a [[wind instrument]]; and on the [[tongue]], which together with the [[palate]], [[teeth]], and [[lip]]s articulate and impose [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s on the amplified sound. Though these four mechanisms function independently, they are nevertheless coordinated in the establishment of a [[vocal technique]] and are made to interact upon one another.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
 |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/545880/singing
 |title=Singing
 |encyclopedia=[[Britannica Online Encyclopedia]]
}}</ref> During passive breathing, air is inhaled with the [[diaphragm (anatomy)|diaphragm]] while exhalation occurs without any effort. Exhalation may be aided by the [[abdominal]], [[internal intercostal]] and lower pelvis/pelvic muscles. Inhalation is aided by use of [[external intercostals]], [[scalenes]], and [[sternocleidomastoid muscles]]. The [[pitch (music)|pitch]] is altered with the [[vocal cords]]. With the lips closed, this is called [[humming]].

The sound of each individual's singing voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's [[vocal cords]], but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body. Humans have vocal folds which can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of the chest and [[neck]], the position of the [[tongue]], and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in [[Pitch (music)|pitch]], volume ([[loudness]]), [[timbre]], or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body and an individual's size and bone structure can affect the sound produced by an individual.

Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract. This is known as [[vocal resonation]]. Another major influence on vocal sound and production is the function of the larynx which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds. These different kinds of laryngeal function are described as different kinds of [[vocal registers]].<ref name="Vennard">polka dots
{{cite book
 |title=Singing: the mechanism and the technic
 |last=Vennard |first=William | author-link =William Vennard
 |year=1967
 |location=New York
 |publisher=[[Carl Fischer Music]]
 |isbn=978-0-8258-0055-9
 |oclc=248006248
}}</ref> The primary method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the [[formant|singer's formant]]; which has been shown to match particularly well to the most sensitive part of the [[ear]]'s frequency range.<ref>{{cite journal
 |url=http://web.ku.edu/~cmed/923/Hunter1.pdf
 |last1=Hunter
 |first1=Eric J
 |last2=Titze
 |first2=Ingo R
 |author-link2=Ingo Titze
 |title=Overlap of hearing and voicing ranges in singing.
 |journal=[[Journal of Singing]]
 |volume=61
 |issue=4
 |year=2004
 |pages=387–392
 |pmid=19844607
 |pmc=2763406
 |access-date=2 January 2009
 |archive-date=22 December 2010
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222005258/http://web.ku.edu/~cmed/923/Hunter1.pdf
 |url-status=dead
 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
 |last1=Hunter |first1=Eric J |last2=Švec |first2=Jan G |last3=Titze |first3=Ingo R
 |title=Comparison of the produced and perceived voice range profiles in untrained and trained classical singers
 |journal=J Voice
 |date=December 2006
 |volume=20
 |issue=4
 |pages=513–526
 |pmid=16325373
 |doi=10.1016/j.jvoice.2005.08.009
|pmc=4782147}}</ref>

It has also been shown that a more powerful voice may be achieved with a fatter and fluid-like vocal fold mucosa.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14719965.300-whats-in-a-voice.html|title = What's in a voice|last = Titze|first = I. R.|date = 23 September 1995|journal = New Scientist|pages = 38–42}}</ref><ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2002/03/19/502634.htm Speak and Choke 1], by Karl S. Kruszelnicki, ABC Science, News in Science, 2002</ref> The more pliable the mucosa, the more efficient the transfer of energy from the airflow to the vocal folds.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The minimum lung pressure to sustain vocal fold oscillation|journal = The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America|date = 1995|issn = 0001-4966|pages = 779–784|volume = 98|issue = 2|doi = 10.1121/1.414354|pmid = 7642816|first = Jorge C.|last = Lucero|bibcode = 1995ASAJ...98..779L|s2cid = 24053484}}</ref>

=== Vocal classification ===
{{Main|Voice type|Voice classification in non-classical music}}
{{Vocal range}}

In [[European classical music]] and [[opera]], voices are treated like [[musical instrument]]s. [[Composers]] who write vocal music must have an understanding of the skills, talents, and vocal properties of singers. '''Voice classification''' is the process by which human singing voices are evaluated and are thereby designated into [[voice types]]. These qualities include but are not limited to [[vocal range]], [[vocal weight]], [[vocal tessitura]], vocal [[timbre]], and [[vocal transition points]] such as breaks and lifts within the voice. Other considerations are physical characteristics, speech level, scientific testing, and [[vocal registration]].<ref name="Shewan">{{Cite journal
 |last=Shewan |first=Robert
 |date=January–February 1979
 |title=Voice classification: An examination of methodology
 |journal=The NATS Bulletin
 |volume=35
 |issue=3
 |pages=17–27
 |issn=0884-8106
 |oclc=16072337
}}</ref> The science behind voice classification developed within European [[classical music]] has been slow in adapting to more modern forms of singing. Voice classification is often used within [[opera]] to associate possible roles with potential voices. There are currently several different systems in use within classical music including the German ''[[Fach]]'' system and the choral music system among many others. No system is universally applied or accepted.<ref name="Stark">{{cite book
 |title=Bel Canto: A history of vocal pedagogy
 |last=Stark |first=James
 |year=2003
 |location=Toronto
 |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]
 |isbn=978-0-8020-8614-3
 |oclc=53795639
}}</ref>

However, most classical music systems acknowledge seven different major voice categories. Women are typically divided into three groups: [[soprano]], [[mezzo-soprano]], and [[contralto]]. Men are usually divided into four groups: [[countertenor]], [[tenor]], [[baritone]], and [[Bass (vocal range)|bass]]. With regard to voices of pre-pubescent children, an eighth term, [[Boy soprano|treble]], can be applied. Within each of these major categories, several sub-categories identify specific vocal qualities like [[coloratura]] facility and [[vocal weight]] to differentiate between voices.<ref name="McKinney 1994" />

Within [[choral music]], singers' voices are divided solely on the basis of vocal range. Choral music most commonly divides vocal parts into high and low voices within each sex (SATB, or soprano, alto, tenor, and bass). As a result, the typical choral situation gives many opportunities for misclassification to occur.<ref name="McKinney 1994" /> Since most people have medium voices, they must be assigned to a part that is either too high or too low for them; the mezzo-soprano must sing soprano or alto and the baritone must sing tenor or bass. Either option can present problems for the singer, but for most singers, there are fewer dangers in singing too low than in singing too high.<ref name="Smith">{{cite book
 |title=Choral pedagogy
 |first1=Brenda
 |last1=Smith
 |first2=Robert
 |last2=Thayer Sataloff
 |year=2005
 |location=San Diego, CA
 |publisher=Plural Publishing
 |isbn=978-1-59756-043-6
 |oclc=64198260
}}</ref>

Within contemporary forms of music (sometimes referred to as [[contemporary commercial music]]), singers are classified by the [[music style|style of music]] they sing, such as jazz, pop, blues, soul, country, folk, and rock styles. There is currently no authoritative voice classification system within non-classical music. Attempts have been made to adopt classical voice type terms to other forms of singing but such attempts have been met with controversy.<ref>{{cite book
 |last=Peckham
 |first=Anne
 |year=2005
 |title=Vocal workouts for the contemporary singer
 |location=Boston
 |publisher=Berklee Press
 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/vocalworkoutsfor0000peck/page/117 117]
 |isbn=978-0-87639-047-4
 |oclc=60826564
 |url=https://archive.org/details/vocalworkoutsfor0000peck/page/117
 }}</ref> The development of voice categorizations were made with the understanding that the singer would be using classical vocal technique within a specified range using unamplified (no microphones) vocal production. Since contemporary musicians use different vocal techniques and microphones and are not forced to fit into a specific vocal role, applying such terms as soprano, tenor, baritone, etc. can be misleading or even inaccurate.<ref name="Appelman">{{cite book
 |title= The science of vocal pedagogy: theory and application
 |last=Appelman |first=Dudley Ralph
 |year=1986
 |location=Bloomington, IN
 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]
 |pages=434
 |isbn=978-0-253-35110-4
 |oclc=13083085
}}</ref>

=== Vocal registration ===
{{Main|Vocal registration|Passagio}}
{{Vocal registration}}

''Vocal registration'' refers to the system of vocal registers within the voice. A register in the voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the [[vocal fold]]s, and possessing the same quality. Registers originate in [[larynx|laryngeal]] function. They occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Chest- and falsetto-like oscillations in a two-mass model of the vocal folds|journal = The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America|date = 1996|issn = 0001-4966|pages = 3355–3359|volume = 100|issue = 5|doi = 10.1121/1.416976|first = Jorge C.|last = Lucero|bibcode = 1996ASAJ..100.3355L}}</ref> Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular range of [[Pitch (music)|pitches]] and produces certain characteristic sounds.<ref name="Large">{{Cite journal
 |last=Large |first=John W
 |date=February–March 1972
 |title=Towards an integrated physiologic-acoustic theory of vocal registers
 |journal=[[The NATS Bulletin]]
 |issn=0884-8106
 |oclc=16072337
 |volume=28
 |pages=30–35
}}</ref> The occurrence of registers has also been attributed to the effects of the acoustic interaction between the vocal fold oscillation and the vocal tract.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Effect of source–tract acoustical coupling on the oscillation onset of the vocal folds|journal = The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America|date = 2012|issn = 0001-4966|pages = 403–411|volume = 132|issue = 1|doi = 10.1121/1.4728170|pmid = 22779487|first1 = Jorge C.|last1 = Lucero|first2 = Kélem G.|last2 = Lourenço|first3 = Nicolas|last3 = Hermant|first4 = Annemie Van|last4 = Hirtum|first5 = Xavier|last5 = Pelorson|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00726367/file/LucEtAlJASA2012.pdf|bibcode = 2012ASAJ..132..403L| s2cid=29954321 }}</ref> The term "register" can be somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of the voice. The term register can be used to refer to any of the following:<ref name="McKinney 1994">{{cite book
 |title= The diagnosis and correction of vocal faults
 |last=McKinney |first=James C
 |year=1994
 |publisher=Genovex Music Group
 |location=Nashville, TN
 |pages=213
 |isbn=978-1-56593-940-0
 |oclc=30786430
}}</ref>
* A particular part of the [[vocal range]] such as the upper, middle, or lower registers.
* A [[resonance]] area such as [[chest voice]] or [[head voice]].
* A [[phonation|phonatory]] process (phonation is the process of producing vocal sound by the vibration of the vocal folds that is in turn modified by the resonance of the vocal tract)
* A certain vocal [[timbre]] or vocal "color"
* A region of the voice which is defined or delimited by vocal breaks.

In [[linguistics]], a '''register language''' is a language which combines [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] and vowel [[phonation]] into a single [[phonology|phonological]] system. Within [[speech pathology]], the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the [[vocal fry register]], the [[modal register]], the [[falsetto register]], and the [[whistle register]]. This view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogues.<ref name="McKinney 1994" />

=== Vocal resonation ===
{{Main|Vocal resonation}}
[[File:Illu01 head neck.jpg|thumb|Cross-section of the head and neck]]

'''Vocal resonation''' is the process by which the basic product of [[phonation]] is enhanced in timbre or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation, although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound.<ref name="McKinney 1994" /> There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators. In sequence from the lowest within the body to the highest, these areas are the [[chest]], the [[Vertebrate trachea|tracheal tree]], the [[larynx]] itself, the [[human pharynx|pharynx]], the [[human oral cavity|oral cavity]], the [[nasal cavity]], and the [[sinuses]].<ref name="Greene2001">{{cite book |title= The voice and its disorders |author1=[[Margaret C. L. Greene]] |author2=Mathieson, Lesley |year=2001 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |edition=6th |isbn=978-1-86156-196-1 |oclc=47831173}}</ref>

=== Chest voice and head voice ===
{{Main|Chest voice|Head voice|Passagio}}

''Chest voice'' and ''head voice'' are terms used within [[vocal music]]. The use of these terms varies widely within vocal pedagogical circles and there is currently no one consistent opinion among vocal music professionals in regards to these terms. Chest voice can be used in relation to a particular part of the [[vocal range]] or type of [[vocal register]]; a [[vocal resonance]] area; or a specific vocal timbre.<ref name="McKinney 1994" /> Head voice can be used in relation to a particular part of the vocal range or type of vocal register or a vocal resonance area.<ref name="McKinney 1994" /> In Men, the head voice is commonly referred to as the falsetto. The transition from and combination of chest voice and head voice is referred to as vocal mix or vocal mixing in the singer's performance.<ref>"What is Chest Voice, Head Voice, and Mix?" by KO NAKAMURA. SWVS journal. MARCH 11, 2017. [https://www.spencerwelch.com/chest-voice-head-voice-mix/]</ref> Vocal mixing can be inflected in specific modalities of artists who may concentrate on smooth transitions between chest voice and head voice, and those who may use a [[Mariah Carey (album)|"flip"]]<ref>{{citation|last=Nickson|first=Chris|title=Mariah Carey revisited: her story|year=1998|publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]]|page = 32|isbn=978-0-312-19512-0}}</ref> to describe the sudden transition from chest voice to head voice for artistic reasons and enhancement of vocal performances.

==== History and development ====
The first recorded mention of the terms chest voice and head voice was around the 13th century when it was distinguished from the "throat voice" (pectoris, guttoris, capitis—at this time it is likely that head voice referred to the [[falsetto register]]) by the writers [[Johannes de Garlandia (music theorist)|Johannes de Garlandia]] and [[Jerome of Moravia]].<ref name="groveONE">{{cite book
 |title=The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians
  |editor1-last=Grove |editor1-first=George | editor1-link =George Grove
 |editor2-last=Sadie |editor2-first=Stanley | editor2-link =Stanley Sadie
 |volume=6: Edmund to Fryklunde
 |isbn=978-1-56159-174-9
 |oclc=191123244
 |publisher=Macmillan
 |year=1980
|title-link=The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians }}</ref> The terms were later adopted within [[bel canto]], the Italian opera singing method, where chest voice was identified as the lowest and head voice the highest of three vocal registers: the chest, [[passagio]], and head registers.<ref name=Stark /> This approach is still taught by some [[vocal pedagogists]] today. Another current popular approach that is based on the bel canto model is to divide both men and women's voices into three registers. Men's voices are divided into "chest register", "head register", and "falsetto register" and woman's voices into "chest register", "middle register", and "head register". Such pedagogists teach that the head register is a [[vocal]] technique used in singing to describe the resonance felt in the singer's head.<ref name="Headv">{{cite book
 |last=Clippinger |first=David Alva
 |title=The head voice and other problems: Practical talks on singing
 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156980 |publisher=[[Oliver Ditson]]
 |year=1917
 |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.156980/page/n28 12]
 }}{{Gutenberg|no=19493|name=Singing}}</ref>

However, as knowledge of physiology has increased over the past two hundred years, so has the understanding of the physical process of singing and vocal production. As a result, many vocal pedagogists, such as Ralph Appelman at [[Indiana University]] and [[William Vennard]] at the [[University of Southern California]], have redefined or even abandoned the use of the terms chest voice and head voice.<ref name=Stark /> In particular, the use of the terms ''chest register'' and ''head register'' have become controversial since [[vocal registration]] is more commonly seen today as a product of [[Larynx|laryngeal]] function that is unrelated to the physiology of the chest, lungs, and head. For this reason, many vocal pedagogists argue that it is meaningless to speak of registers being produced in the chest or head. They argue that the vibratory sensations which are felt in these areas are resonance phenomena and should be described in terms related to [[vocal resonance]], not to registers. These vocal pedagogists prefer the terms ''chest voice'' and ''head voice'' over the term register. This view believes that the problems which people identify as register problems are really problems of resonance adjustment. This view is also in alignment with the views of other academic fields that study vocal registration including [[speech pathology]], [[phonetics]], and [[linguistics]]. Although both methods are still in use, current vocal pedagogical practice tends to adopt the newer more scientific view. Also, some vocal pedagogists take ideas from both viewpoints.<ref name="McKinney 1994" />

The contemporary use of the term chest voice often refers to a specific kind of vocal coloration or vocal timbre. In classical singing, its use is limited entirely to the lower part of the [[modal register]] or normal voice. Within other forms of singing, chest voice is often applied throughout the modal register. Chest timbre can add a wonderful array of sounds to a singer's vocal interpretive palette.<ref name="Miller">{{cite book
 |title= Solutions for singers
 |last=Miller |first=Richard | author-link =Richard Miller (singer)
 |year=2004
 |location=Oxford
 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]
 |pages=286
 |isbn=978-0-19-516005-5
 |oclc=51258100
}}</ref>
However, the use of an overly strong chest voice in the higher registers in an attempt to hit higher notes in the chest can lead to forcing. Forcing can lead consequently to vocal deterioration.<ref name="oxfordDictOperaOne">{{cite book
 |title=The Oxford dictionary of opera
 |last1=Warrack
 |first1=John Hamilton
 |author1-link=John Warrack
 |last2=West
 |first2=Ewan
 |year=1992
 |location=Oxford
 |publisher=Oxford University Press
 |isbn=978-0-19-869164-8
 |oclc=25409395
 |url-access=registration
 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00warr
 }}</ref>

===Vocal registers: General discussion of transitions===

Passaggio ({{IPA|it|pasˈsaddʒo}}) is a term used in classical singing to describe the transition area between the [[vocal registration|vocal registers]].  The ''passaggi'' (plural) of the voice lie between the different vocal registers, such as the [[chest voice]], where any singer can produce a powerful sound, the middle voice, and the [[head voice]], where a penetrating sound is accessible, but usually only through vocal training. The historic Italian school of singing describes a ''primo passaggio'' and a ''secondo passaggio'' connected through a ''zona di passaggio'' in the male voice and a ''primo passaggio'' and ''secondo passaggio'' in the female voice. A major goal of classical voice training in classical styles is to maintain an even [[timbre]] throughout the passaggio. Through proper training, it is possible to produce a resonant and powerful sound.

===Vocal registers and transitions===

One cannot adequately discuss the vocal ''passaggio'' without having a basic understanding of the different vocal registers.  In his book ''The Principles of Voice Production'', Ingo Titze states, "The term ''register'' has been used to describe perceptually distinct regions of vocal quality that can be maintained over some ranges of pitch and loudness."<ref>Ingo R. Titze,  ''The Principles of Voice Production'',  Second Printing  (Iowa City: National Center for Voice and Speech,  2000)  282.</ref> Discrepancies in terminology exist between different fields of vocal study, such as teachers and singers, researchers, and clinicians. As Marilee David points out, "Voice scientists see registration primarily as acoustic events."<ref>Marilee David,  The New Voice Pedagogy,  2nd ed.  (Lanham, MD:  The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,  2008)  59.</ref> For singers, it is more common to explain registration events based on the physical sensations they feel when singing.  Titze also explains that there are discrepancies in the terminology used to talk about vocal registration between speech pathologists and singing teachers.<ref>Ingo R. Titze,  ''The Principles of Voice Production'',  Second Printing  (Iowa City: National Center for Voice and Speech,  2000)  281.</ref> Since this article discusses the ''passaggio'', which is a term used by classical singers, the registers will be discussed as they are in the field of singing rather than speech pathology and science.

The three main registers, described as head, middle (mixed), and chest voice, are described as having a rich timbre, because of the overtones due to the [[sympathetic resonance]] within the human body. Their names are derived from the area in which the singer feels these resonant vibration in the body.  The chest register, more commonly referred to as the chest voice, is the lowest of the registers. When singing in the chest voice the singer feels sympathetic vibration in the chest.  This is the register that people most commonly use while speaking. The middle voice falls in between the chest voice and head voice. The head register, or the head voice, is the highest of the main vocal registers.  When singing in the head voice, the singer may feel sympathetic vibration occurring in the face or another part of the head. Where these registers lie in the voice is dependent on sex and the voice type within each sex.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Richard|title=The Structure of Singing|date=1986|publisher=Schirmer Books|location=New York, NY|isbn=002872660X|page=[https://archive.org/details/structureofsingi0000mill/page/115 115]|url=https://archive.org/details/structureofsingi0000mill/page/115}}</ref>

There are an additional two registers called [[falsetto]] and [[whistle register|flageolet]] register, which lie above their head register.<ref>Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in Vocal Technique (New York:  Schirmer Books: A Division of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 115-149.</ref><ref>Marilee David, The New Voice Pedagogy,  2nd ed.  (Lanham, MD:  The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2008)  63.</ref> Training is often required to access the pitches within these registers.  Men and women with lower voices rarely sing in these registers.  Lower-voiced women in particular receive very little if any training in the flageolet register.  Men have one more additional register called the [[vocal fry register|''strohbass'']], which lies below the chest voice.  Singing in this register is hard on the vocal cords, and therefore, is hardly ever used.<ref>Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books: A Division of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 125.</ref>