Editing Solar vehicle (section)

==Land==
===Solar cars===
{{Main|Solar car}}
[[File:U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry admires a solar-powered car built by members of the Tomodachi Initiative youth engagement program in Tokyo, Japan, on April 14, 2013.jpg|thumb|U.S. Secretary of State [[John Kerry]] examines a solar-powered car built by members of the Tomodachi Initiative youth engagement program in Tokyo, Japan, on 14 April 2013.]]
Solar cars are [[electric car]]s that use [[photovoltaic]] (PV) cells to convert sunlight into electrical power to charge the car's battery and to power the car's electric motors.

Solar cars have been designed for [[solar car racing|solar car races]] and for public use. Solar vehicles must be light and efficient to get the best range from their limited captured power.  {{cvt|3000|lb|-2|disp=flip}} pound or even {{cvt|2000|lb|-3|disp=flip}} vehicles would be less practical because the limited solar power would not take them as far. Most student built solar cars lack the safety and convenience features of conventional vehicles and are thus not street legal.

The first solar family car, Stella, was built in 2013 by students in the Netherlands.<ref>[http://www.tue.nl/en/university/news-and-press/news/06-02-2015-solar-team-eindhoven-wins-crunchie-in-san-francisco/ Solar Team Eindhoven wins Crunchie in San Francisco]</ref> This vehicle is capable of {{cvt|550|mi|disp=flip}} on one charge during sunlight. It weighs {{cvt|850|lb|disp=flip}} and has a 1.5&nbsp;kWh solar array.

[[Stella (solar vehicles)|Stella Lux]], the successor to Stella, broke a record with a {{cvt|932|mi|disp=flip}} single-charge range. During racing Stella Lux is capable of {{cvt|700|mi|disp=flip}} during daylight. At {{cvt|45|mph|disp=flip}} Stella Lux has infinite range. This is again due to high efficiency including a [[Drag coefficient|Coefficient of drag]] of 0.16.

The average family who never drive more than {{cvt|200|mi|disp=flip}} a day would never need to charge from the mains.  They would only plug in if they wanted to return energy to the grid.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://techcrunch.com/2014/09/24/the-first-four-seater-solar-powered-vehicle-hits-the-u-s-road/ | title=The First Four-Seater, Solar-Powered Vehicle Hits the U.S. Road| date=24 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hC3BTzYhjYQ  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/hC3BTzYhjYQ| archive-date=12 December 2021 |url-status=live| title=Solar Team Eindhoven – 2013 year clip|website=[[YouTube]] }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.solarteameindhoven.nl/stella-lux/stella-2013/ |title=Stella 2013 - World's first solar powered family car |access-date=29 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127025453/http://solarteameindhoven.nl/stella-lux/stella-2013/ |archive-date=27 January 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2013/10/20131013-stella-1.html | title=Eindhoven wins world championship for solar-powered family cars in World Solar Challenge}}</ref>

Solar race cars are often fitted with gauges and/or [[telemetry|wireless telemetry]], to carefully monitor the car's energy consumption, solar energy capture and other parameters. Wireless telemetry is typically preferred as it frees the driver to concentrate on driving, which can be dangerous in such a car without safety features. The Solar Electric Vehicle system was designed and engineered as an easy to install (2 to 3 hours) integrated accessory system with a custom molded low profile solar module, supplemental battery pack and charge controlling system.

Some of the students that built Stella Lux founded a company, [[Lightyear One|Lightyear]], to commercialize this technology.

An American company, [[Aptera Motors]], has also been founded to make efficient solar electric cars for the public. As of January 2023, first customer availability is expected in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chris |date=2023-01-27 |title=Aptera Announces Accelerator Program to Kick Off Production Plan |url=https://aptera.us/accelerate-blog/ |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=Aptera |language=en-US}}</ref>

In Germany the company [[Sono Motors]] was working on a solar electric vehicle, the [[Sono Motors Sion]], that was supposed to be on the market in 2023. However in February 2023, Sono Motors terminated the Sion program and announced it would focus exclusively on being a Solar Tech Company.

Note that all battery-powered electric vehicles may also use external solar array sourced electricity to recharge. Such arrays may also be connected to the general electrical distribution grid.

[[Squad Solar]] is a [[neighborhood Electric Vehicle]] [[Side-by-side (vehicle)|Side-by-side]] with a solar roof and can be charged relatively quickly from a normal outlet.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://autos.yahoo.com/solar-powered-city-car-coming-101500074.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAALXR_qq4Pp9inPSARaLblI9evtJWItPPTztNlp44OTNn-TtrjcCd9ozlr4bjwBiJwHBs5lrocAKLgaTOgjAr0Q97EPFYXgdrcX_tS3EUFLCvXmjMq6vssbeV4RBDP71buoRXmW1q2ta_aRUJwqVg7GfzP3g47KQB6riqEVgT96i2 | title=This all-new solar-powered 'city car' is coming to the U.S. — and it only costs $6,250 | date=8 December 2023 }}</ref>
[[File:Squad Solar Car (Fully Charged 2022).jpg|thumb|center|[[Squad Solar]] [[neighborhood Electric Vehicle]]]]

===Solar buses===
{{Main|Solar bus}}
Solar buses are propulsed by solar energy, all or part of which is collected from stationary solar panel installations. The [[Tindo]] bus is a 100% solar bus that operates as [[free public transport]] service in [[Adelaide]] City as an initiative of the City Council.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecogeek.org/content/view/1245/ |title=All-Electric, Solar-Powered, Free Bus!!! |publisher=Ecogeek.org |date=27 December 2007 |access-date=12 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090908184215/http://www.ecogeek.org/content/view/1245/ |archive-date=8 September 2009 }}</ref> Bus services which use [[electric bus]]es that are partially powered by solar panels installed on the bus roof, intended to reduce energy consumption and to prolong the life cycle of the rechargeable battery of the electric bus, have been put in place in China.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://naftcenews.wvu.edu/naftc_enews/2012/9/7/china-reveals-new-solar-buses |title=China Reveals New Solar Buses |publisher=[[West Virginia University]] |date=7 September 2012 |access-date=12 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009112858/http://naftcenews.wvu.edu/naftc_enews/2012/9/7/china-reveals-new-solar-buses |archive-date=9 October 2015 }}</ref>

Solar buses are to be distinguished from conventional buses in which electric functions of the bus such as lighting, heating or air-conditioning, but not the propulsion itself, are fed by solar energy. Such systems are more widespread as they allow bus companies to meet specific regulations, for example the [[anti-idling]] laws that are in force in several of the US states, and can be retrofitted to existing vehicle batteries without changing the conventional engine.

===Solar semi trailers===
[[File:Tesla semi solar trailer.webp|thumb|Tesla semi solar trailer 3D sketch. ~15[[KiloWatt|KW]] of solar installation potential.]]
Solar panels on semi trailers has been tested. There is over 100 square meters or over 1,000 square feet of surface area for solar on a 53 foot box trailer, on the top and sides.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Paul |first=Andrew |date=2023-09-01 |title=Sweden is testing a semi-truck trailer covered in 100 square meters of solar panels |url=https://www.popsci.com/technology/scania-solar-truck/ |access-date=2024-08-19 |website=Popular Science |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahan |first=Zachary |date=2023-12-20 |title=Solar-Powered Semi Trucks — The Future Of Trucking? |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2023/12/19/solar-powered-semi-trucks-the-future-of-trucking/ |access-date=2024-08-19 |website=CleanTechnica |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Single-track vehicles===
[[File:Wolfurt-solar E-Bicycle-01ASD.jpg|thumb|Solar bicycle in Wolfurt, Vorarlberg, Austria (2020)]]
The first solar "cars" were actually tricycles or [[Quadracycle]]s built with bicycle technology. These were called solarmobiles at the first solar race, the [[Tour de Sol]] in Switzerland in 1985. With 72 participants, half used solar power exclusively while the other half used solar-human-powered hybrids. A few true solar bicycles were built, either with a large solar roof, a small rear panel, or a trailer with a solar panel.

Later more practical solar bicycles were built with foldable panels to be set up only during parking. Even later the panels were left at home, feeding into the electric mains, and the bicycles charged from the mains. Today highly developed [[electric bicycles]] are available and these use so little power that it costs little to buy the equivalent amount of solar electricity. The "solar" has evolved from actual hardware to an indirect accounting system. The same system also works for electric motorcycles, which were also first developed for the [[Tour de Sol]].

===Applications===
The [[Venturi Astrolab]] in 2006 was the world's first commercial electro-solar hybrid car, and was originally due to be released in January 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gadgetell.com/2006/10/the-first-commercial-solar-electric-hybrid-car/ |title=The first commercial solar-electric hybrid car |publisher=Gadgetell.com |access-date=26 June 2011}}</ref>

In May 2007 a partnership of Canadian companies led by Hymotion altered a [[Toyota Prius]] to use solar cells to generate up to 240 watts of electrical power in full sunshine. This is reported as permitting up to 15&nbsp;km extra range on a sunny summer day<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/May2007/16/c9889.html |title=Hymotion modified Prius using solar power |publisher=Newswire.ca |date=20 June 2011 |access-date=26 June 2011}}</ref> while using only the electric motors.

An inventor from Michigan, USA built a street legal, licensed, insured, solar charged electric scooter in 2005. It had a top speed controlled at a bit over 30&nbsp;mph, and used fold-out solar panels to charge the batteries while parked.<ref name=scooter>{{cite web|url=http://www.builditsolar.com/Projects/PV/pvscooter.htm |title=PVScooter |publisher=Builditsolar.com |date=15 April 2005 |access-date=26 June 2011}}</ref>

===Auxiliary power===
[[Image:Nuna3Team.JPG|thumb|right|Nuna 3 PV powered car]]
Photovoltaic modules are used commercially as [[auxiliary power unit]]s on passenger cars<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/410454/does-car-mounted-solar-make-sense/ | title=Does Car-Mounted Solar Make Sense?}}</ref> to ventilate the car, reducing the temperature of the passenger compartment while it is parked in the sun. Vehicles such as the 2010 [[Toyota Prius#2009– (model ZVW30)|Prius]], [[Aptera 2 Series#Accessories and interior|Aptera 2]], [[Audi A8#D2|Audi A8]], and [[Mazda 929#1990|Mazda 929]] have had solar [[Sunroof#Sunroof types|sunroof]] options for ventilation purposes.

The area of photovoltaic modules required to power a car with conventional design is too large to be carried on board. A prototype car and trailer has been built called Solar Taxi. According to the website, it is capable of 100&nbsp;km/day using 6&nbsp;m<sup>2</sup> of standard crystalline silicon cells. Electricity is stored using a [[Molten salt battery#Zebra battery|nickel/salt battery]]. A stationary system such as a rooftop solar panel, however, can be used to charge conventional electric vehicles.

It is also possible to use solar panels to extend the range of a hybrid or electric car, as incorporated in the [[Fisker Karma]], available as an option on the [[Chevy Volt]], on the hood and roof of "Destiny 2000" modifications of [[Pontiac Fiero]]s, [[Italdesign Quaranta]], Free Drive EV [[Solar Bug]], and numerous other electric vehicles, both concept and production. In May 2007 a partnership of Canadian companies led by Hymotion added PV cells to a [[Toyota Prius]] to extend the range.<ref>[http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/May2007/16/c9889.html Hymotion modified Prius using solar power] ''accessed 14 September 2007''</ref> SEV claims {{cvt|20|mi|disp=flip}} per day from their combined 215&nbsp;Wh module mounted on the car roof and an additional 3&nbsp;kWh battery.

On 9 June 2008, the German and French presidents announced a plan to offer a credit of 6–8&nbsp;g/km of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions for cars fitted with technologies "not yet taken into consideration during the standard measuring cycle of the emissions of a car".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elysee.fr/download/?mode=press&filename=09.06_emissions_from_cars_version_anglaise.pdf |title=Joint Statement By M. Nicolas Sarkozy President Of The Republic And Mrs Angela Merkel Chancellor Of The Federal Republic Of Germany On Vehicle Emissions |language=en |access-date=2 July 2023 |website=www.elysee.fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318231328/http://www.elysee.fr/download/?mode=press&filename=09.06_emissions_from_cars_version_anglaise.pdf |archive-date=March 18, 2009}}</ref> This has given rise to speculation that photovoltaic panels might be widely adopted on autos in the near future.<ref>[http://www.systaic.com/press/press-release/systaic-ag-demand-for-car-solar-roofs-skyrockets.html accessed 28 September 2008] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505004053/http://www.systaic.com/press/press-release/systaic-ag-demand-for-car-solar-roofs-skyrockets.html |date=5 May 2009 }}</ref>

It is also technically possible to use photovoltaic technology, (specifically [[thermophotovoltaic]] (TPV) technology) to provide motive power for a car. Fuel is used to heat an emitter. The infrared radiation generated is converted to electricity by a low band gap PV cell (e.g. GaSb). A prototype TPV hybrid car was even built. The "Viking 29"<ref>[http://vri.etec.wwu.edu/pdf%20files/v29paper.pdf Use of a Thermophotovoltaic Generator in a Hybrid Electric Vehicle, Seal et al., Vehicle Research Institute, Western Washington University Bellingham, Washington 98225] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905071200/http://vri.etec.wwu.edu/pdf%20files/v29paper.pdf |date=5 September 2008 }}</ref> was the World's first thermophotovoltaic (TPV) powered automobile, designed and built by the Vehicle Research Institute (VRI) at Western Washington University. Efficiency would need to be increased and cost decreased to make TPV competitive with fuel cells or internal combustion engines.

===Personal rapid transit===
[[Image:070515SolarTrussTree610s.JPG|thumb|JPods PRT concept with photovoltaic panels above guideways]]

Several [[personal rapid transit]] (PRT) concepts incorporate photovoltaic panels.

===Rail===

Railways present a low rolling resistance option that would be beneficial for planned journeys and stops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ases.conference-services.net/resources/252/2859/pdf/SOLAR2012_0039_full%20paper.pdf|title=A STUDY ON THE FEASIBILITY OF SOLAR POWERED RAILWAY SYSTEM FOR LIGHT WEIGHT URBAN TRANSPORT |publisher=Proc World Renewable Energy Forum |access-date=22 May 2013}}</ref> PV panels were tested as APUs on Italian rolling stock under EU project PVTRAIN. Direct feed to a DC grid avoids losses through DC to AC conversion.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The potential of solar powered transportation and the case for solar powered railway in Pakistan|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.025|volume=39|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|pages=270–276|year=2014|last1=Jaffery|first1=Syed Husain Imran|last2=Khan|first2=Mushtaq|last3=Ali|first3=Liaqat|last4=Khan|first4=Hassan Abbas|last5=Mufti|first5=Riaz Ahmad|last6=Khan|first6=Ashfaq|last7=Khan|first7=Nawar|last8=Jaffery|first8=Syed M.}}</ref> DC grids are only to be found in electric powered transport: railways, trams and trolleybuses. Conversion of DC from PV panels to grid alternating current (AC) was estimated to cause around 3% of the electricity to be wasted.<ref name="train">{{cite news |last=Murray |first=Leo |date=15 February 2017 |title=Solar-powered trains are closer to reality than we might think |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2017/feb/15/solar-powered-trains-uk-india-renewables-tracks-electric |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref>

PVTrain concluded that the most interest for PV in rail transport was on freight cars where on-board electrical power would allow new functionality:

*  GPS or other positioning devices, so as to improve its use in fleet management and efficiency.
*  Electric locks, a video monitor and remote control system for cars with sliding doors, so as to reduce the risk of robbery for valuable goods.
*  ABS brakes, which would raise the maximum velocity of freight cars to 160&nbsp;km/h, improving productivity.

The Kismaros – Királyrét narrow-gauge line near Budapest has built a solar powered railcar called 'Vili'.  With a maximum speed of 25&nbsp;km/h, 'Vili' is driven by two 7&nbsp;kW motors capable of regenerative braking and powered by 9.9m2 of PV panels.  Electricity is stored in on-board batteries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/rolling-stock/solar-powered-rail-vehicle-ready-for-service.html?channel=542 |title=Solar-powered rail vehicle ready for service |work=International Railway Journal |date= 20 May 2013|access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref> In addition to on-board solar panels, there is the possibility to use stationary (off-board) panels to generate electricity specifically for use in transport.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The potential of solar powered transportation and the case for solar powered railway in Pakistan|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.025|volume=39|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|pages=270–276|year=2014|last1=Jaffery|first1=Syed Husain Imran|last2=Khan|first2=Mushtaq|last3=Ali|first3=Liaqat|last4=Khan|first4=Hassan Abbas|last5=Mufti|first5=Riaz Ahmad|last6=Khan|first6=Ashfaq|last7=Khan|first7=Nawar|last8=Jaffery|first8=Syed M.}}</ref>

A few pilot projects have also been built in the framework of the "Heliotram" project, such as the tram depots in Hannover Leinhausen<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.windwatt.ch/the-projects/48-heliotram.html  |title=Heliotram |publisher=Windwatt |access-date=20 May 2013}}</ref> and Geneva (Bachet de Pesay).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecotourisme.ch/site/7/site7.htm |title=site7: Transports Publiques Genevois |publisher=Ecotourisme.ch |access-date=26 June 2011}}</ref> The 150&nbsp;kW<sub>p</sub> Geneva site injected 600 V DC directly into the tram/trolleybus electricity network provided about 1% of the electricity used by the Geneva transport network at its opening in 1999. On 16 December 2017 a [[Byron Bay Train|fully solar-powered train]] was launched in New South Wales, Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://futurism.com/worlds-first-fully-solar-powered-train-left-station/|title=The world's first fully solar-powered train just left the station|date=18 December 2017}}</ref> The train is powered using onboard solar panels and onboard rechargeable batteries. It holds a capacity for 100 seated passengers for a 3&nbsp;km journey.

Recently [[Imperial College London]] and the environmental charity [[10:10]] have announced the Renewable Traction Power project to investigate using track-side solar panels to power trains.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/administration/energyfutureslab/newssummary/news_6-1-2017-9-34-9|title=Imperial researchers collaborate on project to supply solar power to UK trains &#124; Imperial News &#124; Imperial College London|date=9 January 2017 }}</ref> Meanwhile, Indian railways announced their intention to use on-board PV to run air conditioning systems in railway coaches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/sun-to-power-ac-coaches-in-trains/1/298080 |title=Sun to Power AC coaches in trains|work=India Today |date= 5 August 2013|access-date=20 July 2013}}</ref> Also, Indian Railways announced it is to conduct a trial run by the end of May 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/railways-to-start-trial-runs-of-solar-train-in-sunny-jodhpur-2798717|title=Indian Railways All Set For The Trial Run Of Its First Ever Solar Train!|work=The Times of India|date=13 May 2015}}</ref> It hopes that an average of 90,800 liters of diesel per train will be saved on an annual basis, which in turn results in reduction of 239 tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub>.