Editing Star and crescent (section)

==History==
===Origins and predecessors===
[[File:Ibbi-Sin enthroned.jpg|thumb|Sealing depicting the [[Third Dynasty of Ur|Neo Sumerian]] King, [[Ibbi-Sin]] seated with a star or [[Dingir]] and crescent adjacent to him]]
[[File:Kudurru Melishipak Louvre Sb23 n02.jpg|thumb|Depiction of the emblems of Ishtar (Venus), Sin (Moon), and Shamash (Sun)  on a [[kudurru|boundary stone]] of [[Meli-Shipak II]] (12th century BC)]]
[[File:UrfaMuseumNabonidSymbole.jpg|thumb|Venus, Sun and Moon on the Stele of [[Nabonidus]]  (r. 556–539 BC) found at [[Harran]] ([[Şanlıurfa Museum]])<ref>A similar stele found in Babylon is kept in the British Museum ([http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=367113&partId=1 no. 90837]).</ref>]]
Crescents appearing together with a star or stars are a common feature of Sumerian iconography, the crescent usually being associated with the moon god [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]] (Nanna) and the star with [[Ishtar]] ([[Inanna]], i.e. [[Venus]]), often placed alongside the sun disk of [[Shamash]].<ref>Michael R. Molnar, ''The Star of Bethlehem'', Rutgers University Press, 1999, p78</ref><ref>"the three celestial emblems, the sun disk of [[Shamash]] ([[Utu]] to the Sumerians), the crescent of Sin (Nanna), and the star of [[Ishtar]] ([[Inanna]] to the Sumerians)" Irving L. Finkel, Markham J. Geller, ''Sumerian Gods and Their Representations'', Styx, 1997, p71. André Parrot, ''Sumer: The Dawn of Art'', Golden Press, 1961</ref> 
In Late Bronze Age Canaan, star and crescent moon motifs are also found on [[Moab]]ite name seals.<ref>Othmar Keel, Christoph Uehlinger, ''Gods, Goddesses, and Images of God in Ancient Israel'', Fortress Press, 1998, p. 322.</ref> <div>The [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] representing "moon" (<hiero>N11</hiero> [[Gardiner's sign list#N|N11]]) and "star" (<hiero>N14</hiero> [[Gardiner's sign list#N|N14]]) appear in ligature, forming a star-and-crescent shape <hiero>N11:N14</hiero> , as a determiner for the word for "month", ''{{lang|egy|ꜣbd}}''.<ref>A.H. Gardiner, ''[[Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs]]''. 3rd Ed., pub. [[Griffith Institute]], Oxford, 1957 (1st edition 1927), p. 486.</ref></div>

The depiction of the "star and crescent" or "star inside crescent" as it would later develop in [[Bosporan Kingdom]] is difficult to trace to Mesopotamian art.
Exceptionally, a combination of the crescent of Sin with the five-pointed [[star of Ishtar]], with the star placed ''inside'' the crescent as in the later Hellenistic-era symbol, placed among numerous other symbols, is found in a [[kudurru|boundary stone]] of [[Nebuchadnezzar I]] (12th century BC; found in [[Nippur]] by [[John Henry Haynes]] in 1896).<ref>W. J. Hinke, ''A New Boundary Stone of Nebuchadrezzar I from Nippur with a Concordance of Proper Names and a Glossary of the Kudurru Inscriptions thus far Published'' (1907), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ml5MAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120f].
[[University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology]], object nr. [http://www.penn.museum/collections/object/244029 29-20-1].</ref>  An example of such an arrangement is also found in the (highly speculative) reconstruction of a fragmentary [[Ur-Nammu stela|stele]] of [[Ur-Nammu]] ([[Third Dynasty of Ur]]) discovered in the 1920s.<ref>J. V. Canby, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230725073947/https://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/29-1/Monumental1.pdf Reconstructing the Ur Nammu Stela], ''Expedition'' 29.1, 54&ndash;64.</ref>

A very early depiction of the symbol (crescent moon, stars and sun disc) is found on the [[Nebra sky disc]], dating from {{circa|1800|1600 BC}} (Nebra, Germany). A [[:File:Mycenae ring 2.jpg|gold signet ring from Mycenae]] dating from the 15th century BC also shows the symbol. The star and crescent (or 'crescent and pellet') symbol appears 19 times on the [[Berlin Gold Hat]], dating from c. 1000 BC.

===Classical antiquity===

====Greeks and Romans====
{{further information|Byzantium#Emblem}}

Many ancient Greek (classical and hellenistic) and Roman amulets which depict stars and crescent have been found.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Transformation of Greek Amulets in Roman Imperial Times |year= 2018 |publisher= University of Pennsylvania Press |author=  Christopher A. Faraone  |isbn= 978-0-8122-4935-4 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Ti1NDwAAQBAJ| pages= 40–53}}</ref>

[[Mithradates VI Eupator]] of [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]] (r. 	120–63 BC) used an eight rayed star with a crescent moon as his emblem. 
McGing (1986)  notes the association of the star and crescent with Mithradates VI, discussing its appearance on his coins, and its survival in the coins of the Bosporan Kingdom where "[t]he star and crescent appear on Pontic royal coins from the time of Mithradates III and seem to have had oriental significance as a dynastic badge of the Mithridatic family, or the arms of the country of Pontus."<ref>B.C. McGing, ''The Foreign Policy of Mithradates VI Eupator, King of Pontus'', Brill, 1986, p 97</ref>
Several possible interpretations of the emblem have been proposed. In most of these, the "star" is taken to represent the Sun. The combination of the two symbols has been taken as representing Sun and Moon (and by extension Day and Night),  the Zoroastrian ''[[Mah]]'' and ''[[Mithra]]'',<ref>"The star and the crescent, the emblem of the Pontus and its kings, were introduced by Mithradates and his successors to the Bosporus and appeared on Bosporan coins and locally produced jewelry. On the coins this symbol often appears near the head of a young man wearing a Phrygian cap, who is identified as either a solar deity or his deified worshipper. [...] the star and the crescent, the badge of the Pontus and its kings, shown on the Colchian amphora stamp, and appearing on engraved finger-rings discovered in this area allude to the possibility of an earlier association of the Pontic dynasty with the cult of mounted Mithra. Mithra in fact must have been one of the most venerated gods of the Pontic Kingdom, since its rulers bore the theophoric name of Mithradates [...] although direct evidence for this cult is rather meager."
Yulia Ustinova, ''The Supreme Gods of the Bosporan Kingdom'', Brill, 1998, 270–274</ref> or deities arising from Greek-Anatolian-Iranian syncretism, the crescent representing  ''[[Men (deity)|Mēn Pharnakou]]'' ({{lang|grc|Μήν Φαρνακου}}, the local moon god<ref>
Strabo (12.3.31) writes that Mēn Pharnakou had a sanctuary at [[Kabeira]] in Pontus where the Pontic kings would swear oaths. Mēn Pharnakou is a syncretistic Anatolian-Iranian moon deity not directly comparable to Zoroastrian Māh. Albert F. de Jong, ''Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature'' (1997),  [https://books.google.com/books?id=YLO9CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306 %A9n%20Pharmakou&f=false p. 306].</ref>) and the "star" (Sun) representing [[Ahuramazda]] (in ''interpretatio graeca'' called ''Zeus Stratios'')<ref>"His royal emblem, an eight rayed star and the crescent moon, represented the dynasty's patron gods, Zeus Stratios, or Ahuramazda, and Mén Pharnakou, a Persian form of the native moon goddess." Andrew G. Traver, ''From Polis to Empire—The Ancient World c. 800 B.C.–A.D. 450'', Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, p. 257</ref><ref>"The significance of the star and crescent on royal coins has also been frequently debated. Many scholars have identified the star and the crescent as royal symbols of the Pontic kingdom. Their appearance on every royal issue suggests they were indeed important symbols, and the connection of this symbol to the royal family is definite. The nature of it, however, is still uncertain. Kleiner believed they were symbols of an indigenous god and had their origins in Persia. He associated the star and crescent with the god Men and saw them as representations of night and day (the star may be considered the sun here). Ritter, on the other hand, suggested that the star and crescent symbols derived from Perseus, just as the star symbol of the Macedonians did. […] Ma and Mithras are two other deities with whom the star and crescent symbol are associated. Olshausen believed that the star and crescent could be related to a syncretism of Pontic and Iranian iconography: the crescent for Men and the star for Ahura Mazda. Recently, Summerer has convincingly suggested that Men alone was the inspiration for the symbol on the royal coins of the Pontic kingdom.
Deniz Burcu Erciyas, "Wealth, Aristocracy, and Royal Propaganda Under The Hellenistic Kingdom of The Mithradatids in The Central Black Sea Region in Turkey", ''Colloquia Pontica'' Vol.12, Brill, 2005, p 131</ref>

By the late [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] or early [[Roman Greece|Roman]] period, the star and crescent motif had been associated to some degree with [[Byzantium]]. If any goddess had a connection with the walls in [[Constantinople]], it was [[Hecate]]. Hecate had a cult in Byzantium from the time of its founding. Like [[Byzas]] in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace. Hecate was considered the patron goddess of Byzantium because she was said to have saved the city from an attack by [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip of Macedon]] in 340 BC by the appearance of a bright light in the sky. To commemorate the event the Byzantines erected a statue of the goddess known as the  ''Lampadephoros'' ("torch-bearer" or "torch-bringer").<ref>"Devotion to Hecate was especially favored by the Byzantines for her aid in having protected them from the incursions of Philip of Macedon. Her symbols were the crescent and star, and the walls of her city were her provenance." Vasiliki Limberis, ''Divine Heiress'', Routledge, 1994, p 15.

"In 340&nbsp;B.C., however, the Byzantines, with the aid of the Athenians, withstood a siege successfully, an occurrence the more remarkable as they were attacked by the greatest general of the age, Philip of Macedon. In the course of this beleaguerment, it is related, on a certain wet and moonless night the enemy attempted a surprise, but were foiled by reason of a bright light which, appearing suddenly in the heavens, startled all the dogs in the town and thus roused the garrison to a sense of their danger. To commemorate this timely phenomenon, which was attributed to Hecate, they erected a public statue to that goddess [...]" William Gordon Holmes, ''The Age of Justinian and Theodora'', 2003 p 5-6; "If any goddess had a connection with the walls in Constantinople, it was Hecate. Hecate had a cult in Byzantium from the time of its founding. Like Byzas in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace. Since Hecate was the guardian of "liminal places", in Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate's importance to Byzantium was above all as deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever-present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions. Her mythic qualities thenceforth forever entered the fabric of Byzantine history. A statue known as the 'Lampadephoros' was erected on the hill above the Bosphorous to commemorate Hecate's defensive aid." Vasiliki Limberis, ''Divine Heiress'', Routledge, 1994, pp. 126–127. 
This story survived in the works , who in all probability lived in the time of [[Justinian I]]. His works survive only in fragments preserved in [[Photius]] and the 10th century lexicographer [[Suda|Suidas]]. The tale is also related by [[Stephanus of Byzantium]], and [[Eustathius of Thessalonica|Eustathius]].
</ref>

Some Byzantine coins of the 1st century BC and later show the head of [[Artemis]] with bow and quiver, and feature a crescent with what appears to be a six-rayed star on the reverse.

<gallery mode="packed">
File:MACEDON, Uranopolis. Eight-pointed star and crescent - Aphrodite Urania. Circa 300 BC.jpg|Star and crescent on a coin of [[Ouranoupoli|Uranopolis]], [[Macedon]], ca. 300 BC (see also [[Argead star]]).
File:AiKhanoumPlateSharp.jpg|A star and crescent symbol with the star shown in a sixteen-rayed "sunburst" design (3rd century BC) on the [[Ai-Khanoum plaque]].<ref>On the [[Ai-Khanoum plaque]] from [[Ai Khanoum]], [[Bactria]], 3rd century BC. [[Helios]] is shown separately in the form of a bust with a rayed halo of thirteen rays. F. Tissot, ''Catalogue of the National Museum of Afghanistan'', 1931-1985 (2006),  [https://books.google.com/books?id=TaSOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 p. 42].</ref> 
File:CoinOfMithVI.jpg|Coin of Mithradates VI Eupator. The obverse side has the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΙΘΡΑΔΑΤΟΥ ΕΥΠΑΤΟΡΟΣ with a stag feeding, with the star and crescent and monogram of [[Pergamum]] placed near the stag's head, all in an ivy-wreath.<ref>H. G. Liddell, ''A History of Rome from the earliest times to the establishment of the Empire'' (1857), p. 605. Cf. [https://www.forumancientcoins.com/numiswiki/view.asp?key=mithridates%20vi forumancientcoins.com].</ref>
File:001-Byzantium-2.jpg|Roman-era coin with Greek inscription (1st century AD) with a bust of [[Artemis]] on the obverse and an eight-rayed star within a crescent on the reverse side.
</gallery>

The moon-goddess [[Selene]] is commonly depicted with a crescent moon, often accompanied by two stars (the stars represent [[Phosphorus (morning star)|Phosphorus]], the morning star, and [[Hesperus]], the evening star); sometimes, instead of a crescent, a lunar disc is used.<ref>[[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']], Selene, Luna 35.</ref><ref>Cohen, Beth, "Outline as a Special Technique in Black- and Red-figure Vase-painting", in ''The Colors of Clay: Special Techniques in Athenian Vases'', Getty Publications, 2006, {{ISBN|9780892369423}}, pp. 178–179;</ref><ref>Savignoni L. 1899. "On Representations of Helios and of Selene." The Journal of Hellenic Studies '''19''': pp. 270–271</ref><ref>Zschietzschmann, W, ''Hellas and Rome: The Classical World in Pictures'', Kessinger Publishing, 2006. {{ISBN|9781428655447}}. p.23</ref> Often a crescent moon rests on her brow, or the cusps of a crescent moon protrude, horn-like, from her head, or from behind her head or shoulders.<ref>[[British Museum]] [https://www.britishmuseum.org/system_pages/beta_collection_introduction/beta_collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=437423&partId=1&searchText=Selene 1923,0401.199]; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13548 Selene, Luna 21] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022105/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13548 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13514 Selene, Luna 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022010/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13514 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=19022 Mithras 113] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121074105/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=19022 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13541 Selene, Luna 15] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022021/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13541 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13602 Selene, Luna 34] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022013/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13602 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=6923 Selene, Luna 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121021942/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=6923 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13519 Selene, Luna 7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022112/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13519 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13521 Selene, Luna 9] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022042/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13521 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=49457 Selene, Luna 10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022103/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=49457 |date=21 November 2018 }}; [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae|''LIMC'']] [http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13546 Selene, Luna 19] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121021944/http://www.limc.ch/public/monument_sz_view.aspx?sz_id=13546 |date=21 November 2018 }}. For the close association between the crescent moon and horns see Cashford.</ref>
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Altar Selene Louvre Ma508.jpg|The Moon-goddess Selene or Luna accompanied by the Dioscuri, or Phosphoros (the Morning Star) and Hesperos (the Evening Star). Marble altar, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD. From Italy.
File:Meyers b14 s0847 b1.png|The goddess Selene, illustration from ''Meyers Lexikon,'' 1888.
</gallery>

In the 2nd century, the star-within-crescent is found on the obverse side of Roman coins minted during the rule of [[Hadrian]], [[Geta (emperor)|Geta]], [[Caracalla]] and [[Septimius Severus]], in some cases as part of an arrangement of a crescent and seven stars, one or several of which were placed inside the crescent.<ref>[http://www.forumancientcoins.com/moonmoth/reverse_moon.html Selene and Luna on Roman Coins (forumancientcoins.com)]:
"Bronze coin of Caracalla from [[Nicopolis ad Istrum]] with a single star in the arms of the crescent moon; coin of Geta showing five stars; a denarius of Septimius Severus with an array of seven stars."
Roman-era coins from [[Carrhae]] (Harran): [http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/mesopotamia/carrhae/i.html Carrhae, Mesopotamia, modern day Harran (wildwinds.com)]</ref>

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Hadian denarius coin star crescent.jpg|Coin of [[Roman Empire|Roman Emperor]] [[Hadrian]] (r. 117–138). The reverse shows an eight-rayed star within a crescent.
File:Roman Crescent Star.jpg|Roman period limestone pediment from [[Perge]], [[Turkey]] ([[Antalya Museum]]) showing [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]]-[[Artemis]] with a crescent and a radiant crown.
</gallery>

==== Iran (Persia) ====
The star and crescent symbol appears on some coins of the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] vassal kingdom of [[Elymais]] in the late 1st century AD.
The same symbol is present in coins that are possibly associated with [[Orodes I of Parthia]] (1st century BC). In the 2nd century AD, some Parthian coins show a simplified "pellet within crescent" symbol.<ref>Michael Alram, ''Nomina Propria Iranica in Nummis, Materialgrundlagen zu den iranischen Personennamen auf Antiken Münzen'' (1986); C. Augé, "Quelques monnaies d'Elymaïde," ''Bulletin de la [[Société française de numismatique|Société Française de Numismatique]]'', November 1976; 
N. Renaud, "Un nouveau souverain d'Elymaïde," ''Bulletin de la Société Française de Numismatique'', January 1999, pp. 1–5. 
[http://www.parthia.com/parthia_coins_elymais.htm#Kamnaskires_Late Coins of Elymais (parthia.com)].</ref>

<gallery mode="packed">
File:OrodesIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|A star and crescent appearing (separately) on the obverse side of a coin of [[Orodes II of Parthia]] (r. 57&ndash;37 BC).
File:Vardanesi.jpg|Coin of [[Vardanes I]] of Parthia (r. c. AD 40&ndash;45)
</gallery>
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Coin of the Sasanian king Kavad II (cropped), minted at Susa in 628.jpg|Coin of the Sasanian king [[Kavad II]], minted at Susa in 628
File:KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg|Gold coin of [[Khosrow II]]  (r. 570&ndash;628).
File:XusravIIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|Coin of [[Khosrow III]]
File:Drachma of Hormidz IV - cropped.jpg|Coin of [[Hormizd IV]]
File:Ispahbod Xurshid's coin-1.jpg|Silver dirham issued by Ispahbudh [[Khurshid of Tabaristan]]
File:Main-qimg-3edfe670ef8411d0d22df020be518e44.jpg|Arab-Sassanian coin was issued, which was added with arabic writing by the [[Umayyad]]s
</gallery>

[[File:Gold coin of Kavad I, possibly minted at Susa, in 529 or 530.jpg|thumb|A coin of Sassanid king [[Kavadh I]] during his second reign (r. 488–531). Kavadh was the first Sassanid ruler to introduce star-and-crescent motifs as decorations on the margin of the obverse side of his coins. Note the continued use of the star and the crescent appearing on either side of the king's head.]]
The star and crescent motif appears on the margin of [[Sassanid]] coins in the 5th century.<ref>"The star and crescent are common Persian symbols, being a regular feature of the borders of Sassanian dirhems." Philip Grierson, ''Byzantine Coins'', Taylor & Francis, 1982, p118</ref>
Sassanid rulers also appear to have used crowns featuring a crescent,  sphere and crescent, or star and crescent.

Use of the star-and-crescent combination apparently goes back to the earlier appearance of a star and a crescent on [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] coins, first under King [[Orodes II]] (1st century BC). In these coins, the two symbols occur separately, on either side of the king's head, and not yet in their combined star-and-crescent form.
Such coins are also found further afield in [[Greater Persia]], by the end of the 1st century AD in a coin issued by the [[Western Satraps]] ruler [[Chashtana]].<ref>"A rare type with crescent and star alone on the reverse is probably Chashtana's earliest issue, struck before he extended his power into Malwa." H.H. Dodwell (Ed.), ''The Cambridge Shorter History of India'', Cambridge University Press, 1935, p. 83.</ref> 
This arrangement is likely inherited from its Ancient Near Eastern predecessors; the star and crescent symbols are not frequently found in Achaemenid iconography, but they are present in some cylinder seals of the Achaemenid era.<ref>Achaemenid period: 
"not normally associated with scenes cut in the Court Style"; Persepolis seal PFS 71 (M. B. Garrison in Curtis and Simpson (eds.), ''The World of Achaemenid Persia: History, Art and Society in Iran and the Ancient Near East'' (2010), [https://books.google.com/books?id=IoQAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA354 p. 354])
PFS 9 (M. B. Garrison, ''Seals And The Elite At Persepolis; Some Observations On Early Achaemenid Persian Art'' (1991), [https://archive.org/stream/Garrison1991SealsAndTheEliteAtPersepolisSomeObservationsOnEarlyAchaemenidPersianArt/Garrison%201991%20Seals%20and%20the%20Elite%20at%20Persepolis%3B%20Some%20Observations%20on%20Early%20Achaemenid%20Persian%20Art#page/n7/mode/2up p. 8]).
Parthian period: "[t]he Parthian king [[Mithradates I]] conquered Mesopotamia around 147&nbsp;BC, and [[Susa]] in about 140&nbsp;BC A later Parthian king, [[Orodes II]] (58–38&nbsp;BC), issued coins at Susa and elsewhere which display a star and crescent on the obverse. The succeeding ruler, [[Phraates IV]] (38-3/2&nbsp;BC), minted coins showing either a star alone or a star with crescent moon. In representing the star and crescent on their coins the Parthians thus adopted traditional symbols used in [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Elam]] more than two millennia before their own arrival in those parts." John Hansman, "The great gods of Elymais" in ''Acta Iranica, Encyclopédie Permanente Des Etudes Iraniennes, v.X, Papers in Honor of Professor Mary Boyce'', Brill Archive, 1985, pp 229&ndash;232</ref>

Ayatollahi (2003) attempts to connect the modern adoption as an "Islamic symbol" to Sassanid coins remaining in circulation after the Islamic conquest
<ref>"Sasani coins remained in circulation in Moslem countries up to the end of the first century ([[Islamic calendar|Hijra]]). This detailed description of Sasani crowns was presented because the motifs mentioned, particularly the star and crescent gradually changed into Islamic symbols and have often appeared in the decorative patterns of various periods of Islamic art. [...] The flags of many Islamic countries bear crescents and stars and are proof of this Sasani innovation." Habibollah Ayatollahi (trans. Shermin Haghshenās), ''The Book of Iran: The History of Iranian Art'', Alhoda UK, 2003, pp 155–157</ref> which is an analysis that stands in stark contrast to established consensus that there is no evidence for any connection of the symbol with Islam or the Ottomans prior to its adoption in [[Ottoman flags]] in the late 18th century.<ref>"when we come to examine the history of the crescent as a badge of Muhammadanism, we are confronted by the fact that it was not employed by the Arabs or any of the first peoples who embraced the faith of the prophet" 
"The truth is that the crescent was not identified with Islam until after the appearance of the Osmanli Turks, whilst on the other hand there is the clearest evidence that in the time of the Crusades, and long before, the crescent and star were a regular badge of Byzantium and the Byzantine Emperors, some of whom placed it on their coins."
William Ridgeway, "The Origin of the Turkish Crescent", in ''The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'', Vol. 38 (Jul. – Dec. 1908), pp. 241–258 (p 241)</ref>

====Western Turkic Khaganate====
Coins from the [[Western Turkic Khaganate]] had a crescent moon and a star, which held an important place in the worldview of ancient Turks and other peoples of Central Asia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Babayarov|first1=Gaybulla|last2=Kubatin|first2=Andrey|title=Byzantine Impact on the Iconography of Western Turkic Coinage|date=2013|journal=[[Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae]]|volume=66|issue=1|page=52|doi=10.1556/AOrient.66.2013.1.3|jstor=43283250|issn=0001-6446}}</ref>

===Medieval and early modern===
====Christian and classical heraldric usage====
{{further information|Crescent (heraldry)|Star (heraldry)|Sun (heraldry)}}
The [[crescent (heraldry)|crescent]] on its own is used in western heraldry from at least the 13th century, while the star and crescent (or "Sun and Moon") emblem is in use in medieval seals at least from the late 12th century.
The crescent in pellet symbol is used in [[Crusader coins]] of the 12th century, in some cases duplicated in the four corners of a cross, as a variant of the cross-and-crosslets ("[[Jerusalem cross]]").<ref>In the 12th century found on pennies of [[William the Lion]] (r. 1174&ndash;1195).
William Till, ''An Essay on the Roman Denarius and English Silver Penny'' (1838), [https://archive.org/details/anessayonromand00tillgoog/page/n88 p. 73].
E.g. "Rev: short cross with crescent and pellets in angles and +RAVLD[ ] legend for the moneyer Raul Derling at Berwick or Roxburgh mint" ([http://www.timelineauctions.com/lot/scotland-william-the-lion-raul-derling-crescent-and-pellets-penny/17359/ timelineauctions.com]).
Seaby SE5025 "Rev. [+RAV]L ON ROC, short cross with crescents & pellets in quarters" ([http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/SE/SE5025.html wildwinds.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116111651/http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/SE/SE5025.html |date=16 November 2019 }}).</ref>
Many Crusader seals and coins show the crescent and the star (or blazing Sun) on either side of the ruler's head (as in the Sassanid tradition), e.g. [[Bohemond III of Antioch]], [[Richard I of England]], [[Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse]].<ref>Bohemond III of Antioch (r. 1163–1201)
"Obv. Helmeted head of king in chain-maille armor, crescent and star to sides" ([http://www.ancientresource.com/lots/medieval_crusades/crusaders_coins.html ancientresource.com])</ref> At the same time, the star in crescent is found on the obverse of Crusader coins, e.g. in coins of the [[County of Tripoli]] minted under [[Raymond II, Count of Tripoli|Raymond II]] or [[Raymond III, Count of Tripoli|III]] c. 1140s&ndash;1160s show an "eight-rayed star with pellets above crescent".<ref>"Billon denier, struck c. late 1140s{{snd}}1164. + RA[M]VNDVS COMS, cross pattée, pellet in 1st and 2nd quarters / CIVI[TAS T]RIPOLIS, eight-rayed star with pellets above crescent. ref: CCS 6–8; Metcalf 509 ([http://www.ancientresource.com/lots/medieval_crusades/crusaders_coins.html ancientresource.com]).</ref>

The star and crescent combination appears in [[attributed arms]] from the early 14th century, possibly in a coat of arms of c. 1330, possibly attributed to [[John Chrysostom]],<ref>"The earliest church in the Morea to include a saint holding a shield marked by the crescent and star may be St. John Chrysostom, which has been dated on the basis of style to ca. 1300 [...]" [[Angeliki Laiou|Angeliki E. Laiou]], [[Roy P. Mottahedeh]], ''The Crusades From the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World'', Dumbarton Oaks, 2001, p 278</ref>
and in the ''[[Wernigeroder Wappenbuch]]'' (late 15th century) attributed to one of the [[three Magi]], named "Balthasar of [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]]".<ref>[[:File:Wernigeroder Wappenbuch 021.jpg|p. 21]]; adopted by [[Virgil Solis]] in his ''[[Wappenbüchlein]]'' (1555)</ref>

Crescents (without the star) increase in popularity in early modern heraldry in Europe. ''[[Siebmachers Wappenbuch]]'' (1605) records 48 coats of arms of German families which include one or several crescents.<ref>Sara L. Uckelman, [http://www.ellipsis.cx/~liana/heraldry/siebmacher/siebmacherordinary.html An Ordinary of Siebmacher's Wappenbuch (ellipsis.cx)] (2014)</ref>

A star and crescent symbolizing [[Croatia]] was commonly found on 13th-century ''[[banovac]]'' coins in the [[Kingdom of Slavonia (medieval)|Kingdom of Slavonia]], with a [[two-barred cross]] symbolizing the [[Kingdom of Hungary]].<ref>{{cite book | url = https://www.hnb.hr/-/povijest-novca-u-hrvatskoj | language = hr | title = Povijest novca u Hrvatskoj, 1527. − 1941. | trans-title = History of money in Croatia, 1527 − 1941 | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-953-8013-03-4 | first = Mira | last = Kolar-Dimitrijević | format = PDF | access-date = 2022-04-16 | page = 13}}</ref>

[[St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna|St. Stephen's Cathedral]] in Vienna used to have at the top of its highest tower a golden crescent with a star; it came to be seen as a symbol of Islam and the Ottoman enemy, which is why it was replaced with a cross in 1686.<ref name="Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften k088">{{cite web | title=Wien 1, Stephansdom, Mondschein | website=Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften | url=https://www.oeaw.ac.at/tuerkengedaechtnis/denkmaeler/ort/stephansdom-mondschein | language=de | access-date=2024-03-02}}</ref>

In the late 16th century, the [[Korenić-Neorić Armorial]] shows a white star and crescent on a red field as the coat of arms of "[[Illyrism|Illyria]]".

The star and crescent combination remains rare prior to its adoption by the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 18th century.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

<gallery class="center" heights="150" perrow="4">
File:Seal of Richard I of England.webp|Great Seal of [[Richard I of England]] (1198)<ref>Richard is depicted as seated between a crescent and a "Sun full radiant" in his second Great Seal of 1198. English heraldic tradition of the early modern period associates the star and crescent design with Richard, with his victory over [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus]] in 1192, and with the arms of [[Portsmouth]] (Francis Wise ''A Letter to Dr Mead Concerning Some Antiquities in Berkshire'', 1738, [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFAGAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA18 p. 18]). Heraldic tradition also attributes a star-and-crescent [[:File:Complete Guide to Heraldry Fig680.png|badge]] to Richard (Charles Fox-Davies, ''A Complete Guide to Heraldry'', 1909, p. 468).</ref>
File:Raimond6Toulouse.jpg|Equestrian seal of [[Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse]] with a star and a crescent (13th century)
File:Battle of Mohi 1241.PNG|The crescent flag ascribed to the [[Hungarians]] against the Mongol [[Golden Horde]] in the [[Battle of Mohi]], 1241.
File:BattleOfHoms1299.JPG|[[Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar]] (Battle of Homs) of 1299 (14th-century [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]])
File:Coat of arms of Cumania.svg|Historical coat of arms of [[Kunság]], where [[Cumans]] in Hungary settled, 1279.
File:Frater Robert seal templar.png|Templar seal of the 13th century, probably of the preceptor of the commanderies at Coudrie and Biais ([[Duchy of Brittany|Brittany]]).<ref>Found in the 19th century at the site of the Biais commandery, in Saint-Père-en-Retz,   Loire-Atlantique, France, now in the Musée Dobré in Nantes, inv. no. 303. Philippe Josserand, "Les Templiers en Bretagne au Moyen Âge : mythes et réalités", ''Annales de Bretagne et des Pays de l'Ouest''  119.4 (2012),  7&ndash;33 (p.24).</ref>
File:Leliwa seal XIVw.jpg|Polish coats of arms, called [[Leliwa coat of arms|Leliwa]] (1334 seal)
File:Wernigeroder Wappenbuch 021.jpg|Coats of arms of the [[Three Magi]], with "Baltasar of Tarsus" being attributed a star and crescent ''increscent'' in a blue field, ''[[Wernigerode Armorial]]'' (c. 1490)
File:Wappenbild freigrafen 1448.jpg|Coat of arms of John [[Freigraf]] of "Lesser Egypt" (i.e. [[Romani people in Germany|Romani/gypsy]]),<ref>In 15th-century Europe, it was widely assumed that the gypsies were Egyptians (hence the name ''[[Names of the Romani people#Gypsy and gipsy|gypsies]]''), and several gypsy leaders are known to have styled themselves as "counts of lesser Egypt". Wilhelm Ferdinand Bischoff, ''Deutsch-Zigeunerisches Wörterbuch'' (1827), [https://archive.org/details/deutschzigeuner00biscgoog/page/n32 p.14]</ref> 18th-century drawing of a 1498 coat of arms in [[Pforzheim]] church.
File:Krupac – Stećci (03).jpg|Depictions of stars with crescents are a common motif on the [[stećak]] 12th to 16th century tombstones of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages|medieval Bosnia]]
File:Coat of arms of the legitimate Kingdom of Bosnia.png|1668 representation by [[Joan Blaeu]] of Coat of arms of the [[Kingdom of Bosnia]] from 1595 [[Korenić-Neorić Armorial]]
File:Coa Croatia Country Illyria History.svg|The coat of arms of "Illyria" from the [[Korenić-Neorić Armorial]] (1590s)
File:Banner of Cumania at Ferdinand II's coronation (1618).svg|Banner of [[Cumania]], used at the coronation of Ferdinand II of Hungary in 1618 and assigned to Gáspár (Caspar) Illésházy.
File:Jelacic-Gulden 1848 reverse.jpg|Star and crescent on the obverse of the Jelacic-Gulden of the [[Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)|Kingdom of Croatia]] (1848)<!--apparently related to the "Illyrian" emblem; added here pending development on modern usage.-->
File:COA-family-sv-Slatte.png|Coat of arms of the [[List of Swedish noble families|noble family]] Slatte (1625–1699) in Sweden.
File:COA family sv fi Finckenberg.png|Coat of arms of the [[List of Swedish noble families|noble family]] Finckenberg (1627–1809) in Sweden.
File:COA-family-sv-Boose.png|Coat of arms of the [[List of Swedish noble families|noble family]] Boose (1642–1727) in Sweden.
File:Flag of the Zaporizhian Sich.svg|Banner of the [[Zaporizhian Sich]] ([[Cossacks]] of Ukraine) before 1775.
File:Coa Transylvania Country History v3.svg|[[Flag and coat of arms of Transylvania|Coat of arms of Transylvania]]
</gallery>

====Muslim usage====
{{further information|Crescent#Middle ages}}
While the [[crescent]] on its own is depicted as an emblem used on Islamic war flags from the medieval period, at least from the 13th century although it does not seem to have been in frequent use until the 14th or 15th century,<ref>Mohd Elfie Nieshaem Juferi, {{cite web|title=What Is The Significance Of The Crescent Moon In Islam?
|url=https://www.bismikaallahuma.org/polemical-rebuttals/crescent-moon-in-islam/|website=bismikaallahuma.org|date=12 October 2005 |access-date=September 21, 2017}}</ref><ref>Pamela Berger,  ''The Crescent on the Temple: The Dome of the Rock as Image of the Ancient Jewish Sanctuary'' (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=JekyAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 p. 164f]</ref>  the star and crescent in an Islamic context is more rare in the medieval period, but may occasionally be found in depictions of flags from the 14th century onward.<!-- how rare? we basically just have this single ms. image of BNF Nouvelle acquisition française 886, fol. 31v-->

Some [[Mughal Empire|Mughal era]] (17th century) round shields were decorated with a crescent or star and crescent.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="180px">
File:Hayton BNF886 9v.jpg|Depiction of a star and crescent flag on the [[Saracen]] side in the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] (manuscript illustration of the ''[[Hayton of Corycus#History of the Tartars|History of the Tatars]]'', Catalan workshop, early 14th century).
File:The Surrender of Kandahar.jpg|A miniature painting from a ''[[Padshahnama]]'' manuscript (c. 1640), depicting [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Shah Jahan]] as bearing a shield with a star and crescent decoration.
File:Prince Awrangzeb (Aurangzeb) facing a maddened elephant named Sudhakar (7 June 1633).jpg|A painting from a ''[[Padshahnama]]'' manuscript (1633)  depicts the scene of [[Aurangzeb]] facing the maddened [[war elephant]]  Sudhakar. [[Sowar]]'s shield is decorated with a star and crescent.
File:Walka_o_sztandar_turecki.jpg|Ottoman [[sipahi]]s in battle, holding the crescent banner (by [[Józef Brandt]])
Flag_of_the_Emirate_of_Ha'il.svg|Flag of the [[Emirate of Jabal Shammar]] ([[Ha'il]] in today's [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]]) from 1835 to 1921
File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Khedive_of_Egypt.svg|Coat of arms of [[Khedivate of Egypt]] (1867–1914)
File:Flag_of_Egypt_(1922–1958).svg|Flag of the [[Kingdom of Egypt]] (1922–1953) and co-official flag of the [[Republic of Egypt (1953–1958)|Republic of Egypt]] (1953–1958)
File:Flag_of_Egypt_(1953–1958).svg|Flag of the [[Free Officers Movement (Egypt)|Free Officers Movement]] (1949–1953) and co-official flag of the [[Republic of Egypt (1953–1958)|Republic of Egypt]] (1953–1958)
File:Flag of Aceh Sultanate.svg|Flag of the [[Sultanate of Aceh]] (1496–1903)
</gallery>

====Use in the Ottoman Empire====
{{further information|Flags of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:TurkischeHauptArmeeHochenleitterBGHistory.jpg|thumb|The [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Army]] approaching the city of [[Sofia]] in 1788.]]
{{multiple image
| width             = 220
| image1            = Flag of the Ottoman Empire (1844–1922).svg
| image2            = Flag of the Ottoman Empire (eight pointed star).svg
| direction         = vertical
| footer            = Star-and-crescent flags of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The first was used as the naval ensign and state symbol from the late 18th century, and as the official Ottoman national flag from 1844 to 1922; the second, is an [[Octagram|eight-pointed]] variant of the first, used after 1844.
}}

The adoption of star and crescent as the Ottoman state symbol started during the reign of [[Mustafa III]] (1757–1774) and its use became well-established during the periods of [[Abdul Hamid I]] (1774–1789) and [[Selim III]] (1789–1807).<ref name="islamencyclopedia">{{cite book |title=İslâm Ansiklopedisi |url=http://www.islamansiklopedisi.info/dia/ayrmetin.php?idno=040298 |location=Istanbul |publisher=Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı |page=298 |volume=4 |date=1991 |language=tr}}</ref>
A decree (''{{lang|tr|buyruldu}}'') from 1793 states that the ships in the [[Ottoman navy]] fly that flag, and various other documents from earlier and later years mention its use.<ref name="islamencyclopedia" /> 
The ultimate source of the emblem is unclear. It is mostly derived from the star-and-crescent symbol used by the city of [[Constantinople]] in antiquity, possibly by association with the crescent design (without the star) used in Turkish flags since before 1453.<ref>"It seems possible, though not certain, that after the conquest Mehmed took over the crescent ''and'' star as an emblem of sovereignty from the Byzantines. The half-moon alone on a blood red flag, allegedly conferred on the Janissaries by Emir Orhan, was much older, as is demonstrated by numerous references to it dating from before 1453. But since these flags lack the star, which along with the half-moon is to be found on Sassanid and Byzantine municipal coins, it may be regarded as an innovation of Mehmed. It seems certain that in the interior of Asia tribes of Turkish nomads had been using the half-moon alone as an emblem for some time past, but it is equally certain that crescent and star ''together'' are attested only for a much later period. There is good reason to believe that old Turkish and Byzantine traditions were combined in the emblem of Ottoman and, much later, present-day Republican Turkish sovereignty." Franz Babinger (William C. Hickman Ed., Ralph Manheim Trans.), ''Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time'', Princeton University Press, 1992, p 108</ref>

With the [[Tanzimat]] reforms in the 19th century, flags were redesigned in the style of the European armies of the day. The flag of the Ottoman Navy was made red, as red was to be the flag of secular institutions and green of religious ones. As the reforms abolished all the various flags (standards) of the Ottoman [[pashalik]]s, [[bey]]liks and [[emirate]]s, a single new Ottoman national flag was designed to replace them. The result was the red flag with the white crescent moon and star, which is the precursor to the modern [[flag of Turkey]]. A plain red flag was introduced as the [[civil ensign]] for all Ottoman subjects.
The white crescent with an eight-pointed star on a red field is depicted as the flag of a "Turkish Man of War" in Colton's ''Delineation of Flags of All Nations'' (1862). Steenbergen's ''{{lang|nl|Vlaggen van alle Natiën}}'' of the same year shows a six-pointed star. A plate in ''Webster's Unabridged'' of 1882 shows the flag with an eight-pointed star labelled "Turkey, Man of war". The five-pointed star seems to have been present alongside these variants from at least 1857.

In addition to Ottoman imperial insignia, symbols appear on the flag of [[Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina#Western Herzegovina 1760 flag|Bosnia Eyalet]] (1580–1867) and [[Bosnia Vilayet]] (1867–1908), as well as the [[Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina#Bosnian Revolt of 1830s flag|flag of 1831 Bosnian revolt]], while the symbols appeared on some representations of [[Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina#Historic arms|medieval Bosnian coat of arms]] too.

In the late 19th century, "Star and Crescent" came to be used as a metaphor for Ottoman rule in British literature.<ref>e.g. A. Locher, [[iarchive:withstarandcres01lochgoog|"With Star and Crescent: A Full and Authentic Account of a Recent Journey with a Caravan from Bombay to Constantinople"; Andrew Haggard, "Under Crescent and Star" (1895).]]</ref>  The increasingly ubiquitous fashion of using the star and crescent symbol in the ornamentation of Ottoman mosques and minarets led to a gradual association of the symbol with Islam in general in western [[Orientalism]].<ref>"Mosque and minaret are surmounted by crescents; the air glowing over the Golden Horn is, as it were, full of moons." [[Hezekiah Butterworth]], ''Zigzag journeys in the Orient'' vol. 3 (1882), p. 481.</ref> The "Red Crescent" emblem was used by volunteers of the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] (ICRC) as early as 1877 during the [[Russo-Turkish War]]; it was officially adopted in 1929.

After the foundation of the [[Republic of Turkey]] in 1923, the new Turkish state maintained the last flag of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Proportional standardisations were introduced in the Turkish Flag Law ({{langx|tr|Türk Bayrağı Kanunu}}) of May 29, 1936.
Besides the most prominent example of [[Turkey]] (see [[Flag of Turkey]]), a number of other Ottoman successor states adopted the design during the 20th century, including the [[Emirate of Cyrenaica]] and the [[Kingdom of Libya]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], and the proposed [[Arab Islamic Republic]].