Editing Strength training (section)

== Principles and training methods ==

Strength training follows the fundamental principle that involves repeatedly overloading a muscle group. This is typically done by contracting the muscles against heavy resistance and then returning to the starting position.  This process is repeated for several repetitions until the muscles reach the point of failure.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schoenfeld BJ, Grgic J, Ogborn D, Krieger JW | title = Strength and Hypertrophy Adaptations Between Low- vs. High-Load Resistance Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal = Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | volume = 31 | issue = 12 | pages = 3508–23 | date = December 2017 | pmid = 28834797 | doi = 10.1519/JSC.0000000000002200| s2cid = 24994953 }}</ref> The basic method of resistance training uses the principle of [[progressive overload]], in which the [[muscle]]s are overloaded by working against as high resistance as they are capable of. They respond by growing larger and stronger.<ref>{{cite book|title=Exercise Physiology: Human Bioenergetics and Its Applications|url=https://archive.org/details/exercisephysiolo00broo|url-access=registration|vauthors=Brooks GA, Fahey TD, White TP|publisher=Mayfield Publishing Co|year=1996|isbn=978-0-07-255642-1}}</ref> 
Beginning strength-trainers are in the process of training the neurological aspects of strength, the ability of the brain to generate a rate of [[neuron]]al [[action potential]]s that will produce a muscular contraction that is close to the maximum of the muscle's potential.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ida |first1=Akito |last2=Sasaki |first2=Kazushige |date=2024 |title=Distinct adaptations of muscle endurance but not strength or hypertrophy to low-load resistance training with and without blood flow restriction |journal=Experimental Physiology |language=en |volume=109 |issue=6 |pages=926–938 |doi=10.1113/EP091310 |issn=1469-445X |pmc=11140179 |pmid=38502540}}</ref>

=== Proper form ===
[[File:DumbbellDeadlift.JPG|thumb|A [[dumbbell]] [[Squat (exercise)|half-squat]].<ref name="Rippetoe-2005">{{cite book|last= Rippetoe|first= Mark |author-link=Mark Rippetoe|author2=Lon Kilgore |title=Starting Strength|url= https://archive.org/details/startingstrength00ripp|url-access= limited|publisher=The Aasgard Company|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9768054-0-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/startingstrength00ripp/page/n46 46]–49|chapter=Knees}}</ref>]]
Strength training also requires the use of proper or '[[Form (exercise)|good form]]', performing the movements with the appropriate muscle group, and not transferring the weight to different body parts in order to move greater weight (called '[[Cheating#Sports|cheating]]'). An injury or an inability to reach training objectives might arise from poor form during a training set. If the desired muscle group is not challenged sufficiently, the threshold of overload is never reached and the muscle does not gain in strength. At a particularly advanced level, however, "cheating" can be used to break through strength plateaus and encourage [[neurological]] and muscular adaptation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=David C. |last2=Ellefsen |first2=Stian |last3=Baar |first3=Keith |date=June 2018 |title=Adaptations to Endurance and Strength Training |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=a029769 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a029769 |issn=2157-1422 |pmc=5983157 |pmid=28490537}}</ref>

Maintaining proper form is one of the many steps in order to perfectly perform a certain strength training technique. Correct form in weight training improves strength, muscle tone, and maintaining a healthy weight. Improper form can lead to strains and fractures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/fitness/in-depth/weight-training/art-20045842?pg=2|title=Weight training: Do's and don'ts of proper technique - Mayo Clinic|website=www.mayoclinic.org|access-date=2016-06-13}}</ref>

===Stretching and warm-up===
{{Main|Warming up}}
Weight trainers often spend time [[warming up]] before starting their workout, a practice strongly recommended by the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA). A warm-up may include cardiovascular activity such as light stationary biking (a "pulse raiser"), flexibility and joint mobility exercises, static and/or dynamic stretching, "passive warm up" such as applying heat pads or taking a hot shower, and workout-specific warm-up,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kar |first1=Subhabrata |last2=Alok Banerjee |first2=K. |title=Influence of Active and Passive Warming up on Motor Performance of the Athletes |journal=International Journal of Sports Sciences & Fitness |date=July 2013 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=216–234 |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=s3h&AN=90508074&site=eds-live&scope=site}}</ref> such as rehearsal of the intended exercise with no weights or light weights. The intended purpose of warming up is to enhance exercise effectiveness and reduce the risk of injury.<ref name="Iversen">{{cite journal |last1=Iversen |first1=VM |last2=Norum |first2=M |last3=Schoenfeld |first3=BJ |last4=Fimland |first4=MS |title=No Time to Lift? Designing Time-Efficient Training Programs for Strength and Hypertrophy: A Narrative Review. |journal=Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) |date=October 2021 |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=2079–2095 |doi=10.1007/s40279-021-01490-1 |pmid=34125411|pmc=8449772 |s2cid=235419384 }}</ref>

Evidence is limited regarding whether warming up reduces injuries during strength training.<ref name="Iversen"/> As of 2015, no articles existed on the effects of warm-up for upper body injury prevention.<ref name="McCrary">{{cite journal |last1=McCrary |first1=J Matt |last2=Ackermann |first2=Bronwen J |last3=Halaki |first3=Mark |title=A systematic review of the effects of upper body warm-up on performance and injury |journal=British Journal of Sports Medicine |date=July 2015 |volume=49 |issue=14 |pages=935–942 |doi=10.1136/bjsports-2014-094228|pmid=25694615 |s2cid=12818377|doi-access=free }}</ref> For the lower limbs, several programs significantly reduce injuries in sports and military training, but no universal injury prevention program has emerged, and it is unclear if warm-ups designed for these areas will also be applicable to strength training.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Herman |first1=Katherine |last2=Barton |first2=Christian |last3=Malliaras |first3=Peter |last4=Morrissey |first4=Dylan |title=The effectiveness of neuromuscular warm-up strategies, that require no additional equipment, for preventing lower limb injuries during sports participation: a systematic review |journal=BMC Medicine |date=December 2012 |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=75 |doi=10.1186/1741-7015-10-75|pmid=22812375 |pmc=3408383 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Static stretching can increase the risk of injury due to its analgesic effect and cellular damage caused by it.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moore |first1=Marjorie A. |last2=Hutton |first2=Robert S. |title=Electromyographic investigation of muscle stretching techniques |journal=Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise |date=1980 |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=322–329 |doi=10.1249/00005768-198012050-00004 |pmid=7453508 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The effects of warming up on exercise effectiveness are clearer. For 1RM trials, an exercise rehearsal has significant benefits. For submaximal strength training (3 sets of 80% of 1RM to failure), exercise rehearsal does not provide any benefits regarding fatigue or total repetitions for exercises such as bench press, squats, and arm curl, compared to no warm-up.<ref name="Iversen"/> Dynamic warm-ups (performed with greater than 20% of maximal effort) enhance strength and power in upper-body exercises.<ref name="McCrary"/> When properly warmed up the lifter will have more strength and stamina since the blood has begun to flow to the muscle groups.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McMillian |first1=Danny J. |last2=Moore |first2=Josef H. |last3=Hatler |first3=Brian S. |last4=Taylor |first4=Dean C. |s2cid=16389590 |title=Dynamic vs. Static-Stretching Warm Up: The Effect on Power and Agility Performance |journal=The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research |date=2006 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=492–9 |doi=10.1519/18205.1 |pmid=16937960 |citeseerx=10.1.1.455.9358 }}</ref> Pulse raisers do not have any effect on either 1RM or submaximal training.<ref name="Iversen"/> Static stretching induces strength loss, and should therefore probably not be performed before strength training. Resistance training functions as an active form of flexibility training, with similar increases in range of motion when compared to performing a static stretching protocol. Static stretching, performed either before or after exercise, also does not reduce muscle soreness in healthy adults.<ref name="Iversen"/>

===Breathing===
Like numerous forms of exercise, weight training has the potential to cause the breathing pattern to deepen. This helps to meet increased oxygen requirements. One approach to breathing during weight training consists of avoiding holding one's breath and breathing shallowly. The benefits of this include protecting against a lack of oxygen, passing out, and increased [[blood pressure]]. The general procedure of this method is to inhale when lowering the weight (the eccentric portion) and exhale when lifting the weight (the concentric portion). However, the reverse, inhaling when lifting and exhaling when lowering, may also be recommended. There is little difference between the two techniques in terms of their influence on [[heart rate]] and blood pressure.<ref>{{cite book | first1 = Steven J | last1 = Fleck | first2 = William J | last2 = Kraemer|title=Designing resistance training programs |isbn=978-0-7360-8170-2 |edition=Fourth | location = Leeds | publisher = Human Kinetics | date = 2014 | page = 12 }}</ref>

On the other hand, for people working with extremely heavy loads (such as [[Powerlifting|powerlifters]]), breathing à la the [[Valsalva maneuver]] is often used. This involves deeply inhaling and then bracing down with the abdominal and lower back muscles as the air is held in during the entire rep. Air is then expelled once the rep is done, or after a number of reps is done. The Valsalva maneuver leads to an increase in intrathoracic and intra-abdominal pressure. This enhances the structural integrity of the torso—protecting against excessive spinal flexion or extension and providing a secure base to lift heavy weights effectively and securely.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hackett |first1=Daniel A. |last2=Chow |first2=Chin-Moi |date=August 2013 |title=The Valsalva maneuver: its effect on intra-abdominal pressure and safety issues during resistance exercise |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23222073/ |journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=2338–2345 |doi=10.1519/JSC.0b013e31827de07d |issn=1533-4287 |pmid=23222073}}</ref> However, as the Valsalva maneuver increases blood pressure, lowers heart rate, and restricts breathing, it can be a dangerous method for those with hypertension or for those who faint easily.

=== Training volume ===
Training volume is commonly defined as sets × reps × load. That is, an individual moves a certain load for some number of repetitions, rests, and repeats this for some number of sets, and the volume is the product of these numbers. For non-weightlifting exercises, the load may be replaced with ''intensity'', the amount of [[mechanical work|work]] required to achieve the activity. Training volume is one of the most critical variables in the effectiveness of strength training. There is a positive relationship between volume and hypertrophy.<ref name="Schoenfeld2017">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/02640414.2016.1210197 |title=Dose-response relationship between weekly resistance training volume and increases in muscle mass: A systematic review and meta-analysis |year=2017 |last1=Schoenfeld |first1=Brad J|last2=Ogborn|first2=Dan |last3=Krieger |first3=James W |journal=J Sports Sci |volume=35 |pages=1073–1082|pmid=27433992 |issue=11|s2cid=28012566 }}</ref><ref name="Schoenfeld2019">{{cite journal |doi=10.1249/MSS.0000000000001764 |title=Resistance Training Volume Enhances Muscle Hypertrophy but Not Strength in Trained Men |year=2019 |last1=Schoenfeld |first1=Brad J|last2=Contreras|first2=Bret |last3=Krieger |first3=James |last4=Grgic |first4=Jozo |last5=Delcastillo |first5=Kenneth |last6=Belliard |first6=Ramon |last7=Alto |first7=Andrew |journal=Med Sci Sports Exerc |volume=51 |pages=94–103|pmid=30153194 |issue=1 |pmc=6303131}}</ref>

The load or intensity is often normalized as the percentage of an individual's [[one-repetition maximum]] (1RM). Due to muscle failure, the intensity limits the maximum number of repetitions that can be carried out in one set, and is correlated with the repetition ranges chosen. Depending on the goal, different loads and repetition amounts may be appropriate:<ref name="Schoenfeld2021"/>

* Strength development (1RM performance): Gains may be achieved with a variety of loads. However, training efficiency is maximized by using heavy loads (80% to 100% of 1RM). The number of repetitions is secondary and may be 1 to 5 repetitions per set.<ref name="Schoenfeld2021"/>
* Muscle growth (hypertrophy): Hypertrophy can be maximized by taking sets to failure or close to failure. Any load 30% of 1RM or greater may be used. The NCSA recommends "medium" loads of 8 to 12 repetitions per set with 60% to 80% of 1RM.<ref name="Schoenfeld2021"/>
* Endurance: Endurance may be trained by performing many repetitions, such as 15 or more per set. The NCSA recommends "light" loads below 60% of 1RM, but some studies have found conflicting results suggesting that "moderate" 15-20RM loads may work better when performed to failure.<ref name="Schoenfeld2021">{{cite journal |last1=Schoenfeld |first1=Brad J. |last2=Grgic |first2=Jozo |last3=Van Every |first3=Derrick W. |last4=Plotkin |first4=Daniel L. |title=Loading Recommendations for Muscle Strength, Hypertrophy, and Local Endurance: A Re-Examination of the Repetition Continuum |journal=Sports |year=2021 |volume=9 |issue=2 |page=32 |doi=10.3390/sports9020032 |pmid=33671664 |pmc=7927075 |issn=2075-4663|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Training to muscle failure is not necessary for increasing muscle strength and muscle mass, but it also is not harmful.<ref name="Grgic2022">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jshs.2021.01.007 |title=Effects of resistance training performed to repetition failure or non-failure on muscular strength and hypertrophy: A systematic review and meta-analysis |year=2022 |last1=Grgic |first1=Jozo|last2=Schoenfeld|first2=Brad J |last3=Orazem |first3=John |last4=Sabol |first4=Filip |journal=J Sport Health Sci |volume=11 |pages=202–211|pmid=33497853 |issue=2 |pmc=9068575}}</ref>

=== Movement tempo ===

The speed or pace at which each repetition is performed is also an important factor in strength and muscle gain. The emerging format for expressing this is as a 4-number tempo code such as 3/1/4/2, meaning an eccentric phase lasting 3 seconds, a pause of 1 second, a concentric phase of 4 seconds, and another pause of 2 seconds. The letter X in a tempo code represents a voluntary explosive action whereby the actual velocity and duration is not controlled and may be involuntarily extended as fatigue manifests, while the letter V implies volitional freedom "at your own pace". A phase's tempo may also be measured as the average movement velocity. Less precise but commonly used characterizations of tempo include the total time for the repetition or a qualitative characterization such as fast, moderate, or slow. The ACSM recommends a moderate or slower tempo of movement for novice- and intermediate-trained individuals, but a combination of slow, moderate, and fast tempos for advanced training.<ref name="Wilk">{{cite journal |last1=Wilk |first1=Michal |last2=Zajac |first2=Adam |last3=Tufano |first3=James J. |title=The Influence of Movement Tempo During Resistance Training on Muscular Strength and Hypertrophy Responses: A Review |journal=Sports Medicine |date=August 2021 |volume=51 |issue=8 |pages=1629–1650 |doi=10.1007/s40279-021-01465-2|pmid=34043184 |pmc=8310485 }}</ref>

Intentionally slowing down the movement tempo of each repetition can increase muscle activation for a given number of repetitions. However, the maximum number of repetitions and the maximum possible load for a given number of repetitions decreases as the tempo is slowed. Some trainers calculate training volume using the time under tension (TUT), namely the time of each rep times the number of reps, rather than simply the number of reps.<ref name="Wilk"/> However, hypertrophy is similar for a fixed number of repetitions and each repetition's duration varying from 0.5 s - 8 s. There is however a marked decrease in hypertrophy for "very slow" durations greater than 10 s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schoenfeld |first1=Brad J. |last2=Ogborn |first2=Dan I. |last3=Krieger |first3=James W. |title=Effect of Repetition Duration During Resistance Training on Muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Sports Medicine |date=April 2015 |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=577–585 |doi=10.1007/s40279-015-0304-0|pmid=25601394 |s2cid=22641572 }}</ref> There are similar hypertrophic effects for 50-60% 1RM loads with a slower 3/0/3/0 tempo and 80-90% 1RM loads with a faster 1/1/1/0 tempo. It may be beneficial for both hypertrophy and strength to use fast, short concentric phases and slower, longer eccentric phases. Research has not yet isolated the effects of concentric and eccentric durations, or tested a wide variety of exercises and populations.<ref name="Wilk"/>

===Weekly frequency===

In general, more weekly training sessions lead to higher increases in physical strength. However, when training volume was equalized, training frequency had no influence on muscular strength. In addition, greater frequency had no significant effect on single-joint exercises. There may be a fatigue recovery effect in which spreading the same amount of training over multiple days boosts gains, but this has to be confirmed by future studies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grgic |first1=Jozo |last2=Schoenfeld |first2=Brad J. |last3=Davies |first3=Timothy B. |last4=Lazinica |first4=Bruno |last5=Krieger |first5=James W. |last6=Pedisic |first6=Zeljko |title=Effect of Resistance Training Frequency on Gains in Muscular Strength: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Sports Medicine |date=22 February 2018 |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=1207–1220 |doi=10.1007/s40279-018-0872-x |pmid=29470825 |s2cid=3447605 |url=https://vuir.vu.edu.au/37695/1/Effect_of_Resistance_TrainingFrequency_on_Gains_in_Muscular_Strength_A_SystematicReview.pdf }}</ref>

For muscle growth, a training frequency of two sessions per week had greater effects than once per week. Whether training a muscle group three times per week is superior to a twice-per-week protocol remains to be determined.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schoenfeld |first1=Brad J. |last2=Ogborn |first2=Dan |last3=Krieger |first3=James W. |title=Effects of Resistance Training Frequency on Measures of Muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |journal=Sports Medicine |date=21 April 2016 |volume=46 |issue=11 |pages=1689–1697 |doi=10.1007/s40279-016-0543-8 |pmid=27102172 |s2cid=207494003 }}</ref>

===Rest period===
The rest period is defined as the time dedicated to recovery between sets and exercises. Exercise causes metabolic stress, such as the buildup of lactic acid and the depletion of adenosine triphosphate and phosphocreatine.<ref name="Grgic2018"/>  Resting 3–5 minutes between sets allows for significantly greater repetitions in the next set versus resting 1–2 minutes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gonzalez |first1=Adam M. |title=Effect of Interset Rest Interval Length on Resistance Exercise Performance and Muscular Adaptation |journal=Strength & Conditioning Journal |date=December 2016 |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=65–68 |doi=10.1519/SSC.0000000000000257|s2cid=58335780 }}</ref>

For untrained individuals (no previous resistance training experience), the effect of resting on muscular strength development is small and other factors such as volitional fatigue and discomfort, cardiac stress, and the time available for training may be more important. Moderate rest intervals (60-160s) are better than short (20-40 s), but long rest intervals (3–4 minutes) have no significant difference from moderate.<ref name="Grgic2018"/>

For trained individuals, rest of 3–5 minutes<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=de Salles |first1=Belmiro Freitas |last2=Simão |first2=Roberto |last3=Miranda |first3=Fabrício |last4=da Silva Novaes |first4=Jefferson |last5=Lemos |first5=Adriana |last6=Willardson |first6=Jeffrey M. |date=September 2009 |title=Rest Interval between Sets in Strength Training |url=http://link.springer.com/10.2165/11315230-000000000-00000 |journal=Sports Medicine |language=en |volume=39 |issue=9 |pages=765–777 |doi=10.2165/11315230-000000000-00000 |pmid=19691365 |issn=0112-1642|url-access=subscription }}</ref> is sufficient to maximize strength gain, compared to shorter intervals 20s-60s and longer intervals of 5 minutes. Intervals of greater than 5 minutes have not been studied.<ref name="Grgic2018">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s40279-017-0788-x |title=Effects of Rest Interval Duration in Resistance Training on Measures of Muscular Strength: A Systematic Review |year=2018 |last1=Grgic |first1=Jozo|last2=Schoenfeld |first2=Brad J |last3=Skrepnik |first3=Mislav |last4=Davies |first4=Timothy B |last5=Mikulic |first5=Pavle |journal=Sports Med |volume=48 |pages=137–151|pmid= 28933024 |issue=1|s2cid=20767297 }}</ref> Starting at 2 minutes and progressively decreasing the rest interval over the course of a few weeks to 30s can produce similar strength gains to a constant 2 minutes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Souza |first1=Tácito P |last2=Fleck |first2=Steven J |last3=Simão |first3=Roberto |last4=Dubas |first4=João P |last5=Pereira |first5=Benedito |last6=de Brito Pacheco |first6=Elisa M |last7=da Silva |first7=Antonio C |last8=de Oliveira |first8=Paulo R |title=Comparison Between constant and decreasing rest intervals: influence on maximal strength and hypertrophy |journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research |date=July 2010 |volume=24 |issue=7 |pages=1843–1850 |doi=10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181ddae4a|pmid=20543741 |s2cid=17314141 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Grgic2018"/>

Regarding older individuals, a 1-minute rest is sufficient in females.<ref name="Grgic2018"/>

===Order===
The largest increases in strength happen for the exercises in the beginning of a session.<ref name="Nunes2021">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/17461391.2020.1733672 |title=What influence does resistance exercise order have on muscular strength gains and muscle hypertrophy? A systematic review and meta-analysis |year=2021 |last1=Nunes |first1=João Pedro |last2=Grgic |first2=Jozo |last3=Cunha |first3=Paolo M |last4=Ribeiro |first4=Alex S |last5=Schoenfeld |first5=Brad J |last6=de Salles |first6=Belmiro F |last7=Cyrino |first7=Edilson S |journal=Eur J Sport Sci |volume=21 |pages=149–157 |pmid=32077380 |issue=2|s2cid=211214313 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Supersets are defined as a pair of different exercise sets performed without rest, followed by a normal rest period. Common superset configurations are two exercises for the same muscle group, agonist-antagonist muscles, or alternating upper and lower body muscle groups.<ref name="Krzysztofik">{{cite journal |last1=Krzysztofik |first1=M |last2=Wilk |first2=M |last3=Wojdała |first3=G |last4=Gołaś |first4=A |title=Maximizing Muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review of Advanced Resistance Training Techniques and Methods. |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |date=4 December 2019 |volume=16 |issue=24 |page=4897 |doi=10.3390/ijerph16244897 |pmid=31817252 |pmc=6950543 |doi-access=free }} {{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}
</ref> Exercises for the same muscle group (flat bench press followed by the incline bench press) result in a significantly lower training volume than a traditional exercise format with rests.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=W |last2=Ugrinowitsch |first2=C |last3=Stefan |first3=M |last4=Rauch |first4=J |last5=Barakat |first5=C |last6=Shields |first6=K |last7=Barninger |first7=A |last8=Barroso |first8=R |last9=De Souza |first9=EO |title=Repeated Bouts of Advanced Strength Training Techniques: Effects on Volume Load, Metabolic Responses, and Muscle Activation in Trained Individuals. |journal=Sports |date=6 January 2019 |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=14 |doi=10.3390/sports7010014 |pmid=30621334 |pmc=6359665 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, agonist–antagonist supersets result in a significantly higher training volume when compared to a traditional exercise format.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robbins |first1=Daniel W |last2=Young |first2=Warren B |last3=Behm |first3=David G |title=The Effect of an Upper-Body Agonist-Antagonist Resistance Training Protocol on Volume Load and Efficiency |journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research |date=October 2010 |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=2632–2640 |doi=10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181e3826e|pmid=20847705 |s2cid=19670323 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, holding training volume constant but performing upper–lower body supersets and tri-sets reduce elapsed time but increased perceived exertion rate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weakley |first1=JJS |last2=Till |first2=K |last3=Read |first3=DB |last4=Roe |first4=GAB |last5=Darrall-Jones |first5=J |last6=Phibbs |first6=PJ |last7=Jones |first7=B |title=The effects of traditional, superset, and tri-set resistance training structures on perceived intensity and physiological responses. |journal=European Journal of Applied Physiology |date=September 2017 |volume=117 |issue=9 |pages=1877–1889 |doi=10.1007/s00421-017-3680-3 |pmid=28698987|pmc=5556132 |s2cid=253892268 }}</ref> These results suggest that specific exercise orders may allow more intense, more time-efficient workouts with results similar to longer workouts.<ref name="Krzysztofik"/>

===Periodization===
{{See also|Sports periodization}}
Periodization refers to the organization of training into sequential phases and cyclical periods, and the change in training over time. The simplest strength training periodization involves keeping a fixed schedule of sets and reps (e.g. 2 sets of 12 reps of bicep curls every 2 days), and steadily increasing the intensity on a weekly basis. This is conceptually a parallel model, as several exercises are done each day and thus multiple muscles are developed simultaneously. It is also sometimes called ''linear'' periodization, but this designation is considered a misnomer.<ref name=Williams>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Tyler D. |last2=Tolusso |first2=Danilo V. |last3=Fedewa |first3=Michael V. |last4=Esco |first4=Michael R. |title=Comparison of Periodized and Non-Periodized Resistance Training on Maximal Strength: A Meta-Analysis |journal=Sports Medicine |year=2017 |volume=47 |issue=10 |pages=2083–2100 |doi=10.1007/s40279-017-0734-y |pmid=28497285 |s2cid=41575929 |language=en |issn=1179-2035}}</ref>

Sequential or block periodization concentrates training into periods ("blocks"). For example, for athletes, performance can be optimized for specific events based on the competition schedule. An annual training plan may be divided hierarchically into  several levels, from training phases down to individual sessions. Traditional periodization can be viewed as repeating one weekly block over and over. Block periodization has the advantage of focusing on specific motor abilities and muscle groups.<ref name=Williams/> Because only a few abilities are worked on at a time, the effects of fatigue are minimized. With careful goal selection and ordering, there may be synergistic effects. A traditional block consists of high-volume, low-intensity exercises, transitioning to low-volume, high-intensity exercises. However, to maximize progress to specific goals, individual programs may require different manipulations, such as decreasing the intensity and increasing volume.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Campos GE, Luecke TJ, Wendeln HK, Toma K, Hagerman FC, Murray TF, Ragg KE, Ratamess NA, Kraemer WJ, Staron RS | title = Muscular adaptations in response to three different resistance-training regimens: specificity of repetition maximum training zones | journal = European Journal of Applied Physiology | volume = 88 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 50–60 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12436270 | doi = 10.1007/s00421-002-0681-6 | s2cid = 21473855 }}</ref>

Undulating periodization is an extension of block periodization to frequent changes in volume and intensity, usually daily or weekly. Because of the rapid changes, it is theorized that there will be more stress on the neuromuscular system and better training effects. Undulating periodization yields better strength improvements on 1RM than non-periodized training.<ref name=Williams/> For hypertrophy, it appears that daily undulating periodization has similar effect to more traditional models.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grgic |first1=Jozo |last2=Mikulic |first2=Pavle |last3=Podnar |first3=Hrvoje |last4=Pedisic |first4=Zeljko |title=Effects of linear and daily undulating periodized resistance training programs on measures of muscle hypertrophy: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=PeerJ |year=2017 |volume=5 |pages=e3695 |doi=10.7717/peerj.3695 |pmid=28848690 |pmc=5571788 |language=en |issn=2167-8359 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Training splits ===
{{Further|Split weight training}}
A training split refers to how the trainee divides and schedules their training volume, or in other words which muscles are trained on a given day over a period of time (usually a week). Popular training splits include full body, upper/lower, push/pull/legs, and the "bro" split. Some training programs may alternate splits weekly.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QWSn4iKgNo8C&q=strength+training+weekly&pg=PP12|title=Science and Practice of Strength Training, Second Edition|vauthors=Kraemer WJ, Zatsiorsky VM|publisher=Human Kinetics Publishers|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7360-5628-1|location=Champaign, Ill|page=161}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2022}}

=== Exercise selection ===
{{Further|List of weight training exercises}}
Exercise selection depends on the goals of the strength training program. If a specific sport or activity is targeted, the focus will be on specific muscle groups used in that sport. Various exercises may target improvements in strength, speed, agility, or endurance.<ref name="Sheppard">{{cite journal |last1=Sheppard |first1=Jeremy M. |title=Strength and Conditioning Exercise Selection in Speed Development |journal=Strength & Conditioning Journal |date=August 2003 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=26–30 |doi=10.1519/00126548-200308000-00006 |issn=1524-1602|doi-access=free }}</ref> For other populations such as older individuals, there is little information to guide exercise selection, but exercises can be selected on the basis of specific functional capabilities as well as the safety and efficiency of the exercises.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ribeiro |first1=Alex S. |last2=Nunes |first2=João Pedro |last3=Schoenfeld |first3=Brad J. |title=Selection of Resistance Exercises for Older Individuals: The Forgotten Variable |journal=Sports Medicine |date=June 2020 |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=1051–1057 |doi=10.1007/s40279-020-01260-5|pmid=32008175 |s2cid=210985951 }}</ref>

For strength and power training in able-bodied individuals, the NCSA recommends emphasizing integrated or compound movements (multi-joint exercises), such as with free weights, over exercises isolating a muscle (single-joint exercises), such as with machines.<ref name="E4E">{{cite book |title=Essentials of strength training and conditioning |date=2016 |publisher=Human Kinetics |location=Champaign, IL Windsor, ON Leeds |isbn=978-1-4925-0162-6 |page=444 |edition=Fourth}}</ref> This is due to the fact that only the compound movements improve gross motor coordination and proprioceptive stabilizing mechanisms.<ref name="Sheppard"/> However, single-joint exercises can result in greater muscle growth in the targeted muscles,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mannarino |first1=P |last2=Matta |first2=T |last3=Lima |first3=J |last4=Simão |first4=R |last5=Freitas de Salles |first5=B |title=Single-Joint Exercise Results in Higher Hypertrophy of Elbow Flexors Than Multijoint Exercise. |journal=Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research |date=1 October 2021 |volume=35 |issue=10 |pages=2677–2681 |doi=10.1519/JSC.0000000000003234 |pmid=31268995|s2cid=195798475 }}</ref> and are more suitable for injury prevention and rehabilitation.<ref name="E4E"/> Low variation in exercise selection or targeted muscle groups, combined with a high volume of training, is likely to lead to [[overtraining]] and training maladaptation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grandou |first1=Clementine |last2=Wallace |first2=Lee |last3=Impellizzeri |first3=Franco M. |last4=Allen |first4=Nicholas G. |last5=Coutts |first5=Aaron J. |title=Overtraining in Resistance Exercise: An Exploratory Systematic Review and Methodological Appraisal of the Literature |journal=Sports Medicine |date=April 2020 |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=815–828 |doi=10.1007/s40279-019-01242-2|pmid=31820373 |s2cid=208869268 }}</ref> Many exercises such as the [[Squat (exercise)|squat]] have several variations. Some studies have analyzed the differing muscle activation patterns, which can aid in exercise selection.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gene-Morales |first1=Javier |last2=Flandez |first2=Jorge |last3=Juesas |first3=Alvaro |last4=Gargallo |first4=Pedro |last5=Miñana |first5=Iván |last6=Colado |first6=Juan C. |title=A systematic review on the muscular activation on the lower limbs with five different variations of the squat exercise|journal=Journal of Human Sport and Exercise |date=2020 |doi=10.14198/jhse.2020.15.Proc4.28|s2cid=242661004 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Equipment===
Commonly used equipment for resistance training include free weights—including [[dumbbells]], [[barbells]], and [[kettlebells]]—[[weight machines]], and [[resistance band]]s.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://us.humankinetics.com/blogs/excerpt/types-of-resistance-training-equipment | title=Types of resistance training equipment | work =  Human Kinetics }}</ref>

Resistance can also be generated by [[inertia]] in [[flywheel training]] instead of by [[gravity]] from weights, facilitating variable resistance throughout the [[range of motion]] and [[eccentric overload]].<ref>{{cite journal
|date = 2018-12-13
|title = Effects of Flywheel Training on Strength-Related Variables: a Meta-analysis
|journal = Sports Medicine - Open
|first1 = Henrik
|last1 = Petré
|author-link = Henrik Petré
|first2 = Fredrik 
|last2 = Wernstål
|first3 = C. Mikael 
|last3 = Mattsson 
|volume = 4
|issue = 1
|page = 55
|doi = 10.1186/s40798-018-0169-5
|pmid = 30547232
|pmc = 6292829
|s2cid = 56485869
|doi-access = free
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
|date = 2019-12-14
|title = Flywheel Training in Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation: A Clinical Commentary
|journal = International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy
|first = Jaap
|last = Wonders
|volume = 14
|issue = 6
|pages = 994–1000
|doi = 10.26603/ijspt20190994
|doi-broken-date = 14 November 2024
|pmid = 31803531
|pmc = 6878857
}}</ref>

Some [[bodyweight exercise]]s do not require any equipment, and others may be performed with equipment such as [[suspension trainer]]s or [[pull-up bar]]s.<ref>{{cite news |title=19 Bodyweight Exercises You Can Do At Home for a Quick Workout |url=https://www.verywellfit.com/bodyweight-exercises-3120780 |access-date=19 October 2022 |work=Verywell Fit |language=en}}</ref>

===Types of strength training exercises===
*[[Isometric exercise]]
*[[Isotonic contraction|Isotonic exercise]]
*[[Isokinetic exercise]]