Editing Student affairs (section)

== History ==
Although institutions of higher education have had to deal with student affairs in some way for as long as they have existed, student affairs as a distinct professional field emerged first in the [[English American|Anglo-American]] context in the late 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVPwBLnFGRQC|title=The SAGE Handbook of International Higher Education|first1=Darla K.|last1=Deardorff|first2=Hans|last2=de Wit|first3=John D.|last3=Heyl|year=2012|page=237|isbn=9781412999212|ref={{harvid|Deardorff2012}}}}</ref> There it developed from the originally distinct positions of "[[dean of women]]" and "dean of men".  The field developed much later in continental Europe, where development first began in the 1950s{{sfn|Schreiber|2014|p=13}} but was greatly spurred when the [[Bologna Process]] in the 1990s created a surge in [[international student]]s with greater needs for student support.{{sfn|Deardorff|2012|p=237-238}} Similarly in many other countries where student affairs is still a largely inchoate profession, such as [[Uruguay]], professional activity in the field has emerged in relation to the needs of international students.{{sfn|Ludeman|2009|p=297}}

=== Asian Pacific Region ===
In 1988, Asia Pacific Student Services Association (APSSA) was created after representatives of the Asia Pacific Student Affairs Conference recognized there was a need for more communication and partnerships between student affairs professionals and the institutions they worked for.<ref>{{Cite web|title=APSSA|url=http://www.apssa.info/index.php/site/page?pid=42|access-date=2021-03-06|website=www.apssa.info}}</ref> The work that APSSA does focuses creating a space for international collaboration through conferences with internal attendees and training and staff networking programs through the Institute of Student Affairs (ISA). ISA is the standing committee for APSSA's Executive Committee, and manages the planning and marketing for training and networking programs.<ref>{{Cite web|title=APSSA|url=http://www.apssa.info/index.php/site/page?pid=40|access-date=2021-03-06|website=www.apssa.info}}</ref> In 2021, the Institute has five recorded Program Coordinators from different countries and regions: Japan, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Malaysia, and China. From 2018 to 2022, Maria Paquita D. Bonnet from [[De La Salle University]] in the [[Philippines]] was appointed to the position of Director of ISA.

APSSA holds a staff conference every two years where individuals from different countries will come together and encourage ideas for student affairs workers and offices to collaborate with one another. This conference allows for networking between organizations and staff and upholds APSSA's goal of global collaboration. This society also holds a student conference, which allows for student leaders from participating countries to meet and nurture their leadership strengths together, while also allowing students to have a platform to share their thoughts and ideas for activities and careers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=APSSA|url=http://www.apssa.info/index.php/site/page?pid=73|access-date=2021-03-06|website=www.apssa.info}}</ref>

=== Canada ===
Student affairs in Canadian higher education dates back to the vocational school established at the Collège des Jésuites<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/college-des-jesuites|title=Collège des Jésuites {{!}} The Canadian Encyclopedia|website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca|access-date=2020-03-12}}</ref> in seventeenth century. Additional development of Canadian student services has many similarities with authoritarian teaching in terms of monitoring and controlling students behaviour on campus that was common in [[History of education in the United States|United States]] in nineteenth century.  The protest that occurred at [[Queen's University at Kingston|Queen's University]] in 1875,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.queensu.ca/encyclopedia/s/student-strikes|title=Student Strikes {{!}} Queen's Encyclopedia|website=www.queensu.ca|access-date=2020-03-12}}</ref> when Principal William Snodgrass<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.queensu.ca/encyclopedia/s/snodgrass-rev-william|title=Snodgrass, Rev William {{!}} Queen's Encyclopedia|website=www.queensu.ca|access-date=2020-03-12}}</ref> suspended several students for drinking, indicated a need for closer observation for students' conduct. After the Principal Snodgrass sent a report to the Senate,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.queensu.ca/encyclopedia/s/senate|title=Senate {{!}} Queen's Encyclopedia|website=www.queensu.ca|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref> two students were suspended.  They were allowed to attend the class, but could not [[Graduate Record Examinations|graduate]]. Their friends appealed against the suspension, and refused to go to the class. Since the Senate rejected their request, all students returned to their class in a week. In order to prevent further misbehaviour, staff representatives started to be more engaged in students life organizing social, cultural and physical activities.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Cox and Strange|first=Donna Hardy and C. Carney|title=Achieving Student Success: Effective Student Services in Canadian Higher Education|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-7735-3621-0|pages=146|jstor=j.ctt80bhj}}</ref>
[[File:Theological Hall of Queen's University, Kingston.jpg|thumb|Theological Hall on Queen's Campus in Kingston (Canada)]]
Several decades later, the Queen's Rev Principal Robert Bruce Taylor<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.queensu.ca/encyclopedia/t/taylor-rev-robert-bruce|title=Taylor, Rev Robert Bruce {{!}} Queen's Encyclopedia|website=www.queensu.ca|access-date=2020-03-12}}</ref> emphasized importance of students representatives role by including [[Dean (education)|deans of men]] and women<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.queensu.ca/encyclopedia/d/dean-women|title=Dean of Women {{!}} Queen's Encyclopedia|website=www.queensu.ca|access-date=2020-03-15}}</ref> to be elected and responsible for cooperation with administration, student events and regulations.  They used to live on several campuses to supervise visitors, off-campus housing, dress code, etc.<ref name=":5" /> The first Dean of Women Caroline McNeil<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.queensu.ca/encyclopedia/m/mcneill-caroline-emmy-libby|title=McNeill, Caroline Emmy Libby {{!}} Queen's Encyclopedia|website=www.queensu.ca|access-date=2020-03-12}}</ref> started at Queen's in 1918 and soon, the other Canadian universities appointed dean of men and women on their campuses.<ref name=":5" />

After the [[World War II|Second World War]] the professionalization of student affairs expanded by supporting soldiers who received tuition and living assistance based on Veterans Rehabilitation Act<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/veterans-and-the-second-world-war|title=Second World War Veterans {{!}} The Canadian Encyclopedia|website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca|access-date=2020-03-15}}</ref> in 1945. Within the educational system, veterans<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng|title=Home - Veterans Affairs Canada|last=Canada|first=Veterans Affairs|date=2019-02-20|website=www.veterans.gc.ca|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref> received personal support and career counselling, but the other students were put on a side.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book|title=Achieving student success: effective student services in Canadian higher education|date=2010|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|author1=Cox, Donna | author2=Gail Hardy | author3=Strange, Charles Carney| isbn=978-0-7735-7572-1|location=Montreal [Que.]|oclc=708579655}}</ref>  While in the last seven decades Canadian student affairs has developed to support all students in financial need, career services, housing, residence life and academic advising, it was also reorganized frequently, e.g.:<ref name=":03" />

* Canadian Association of Career Educators & Employers (CACEE) in 1995; previous University Advisory Services (UAS) in 1946; University Counselling and Placement Association (UCPA) in 1952<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cacee.com/history.html|title=CACEE - History|website=www.cacee.com|access-date=2020-03-15}}</ref>
*Canadian Association of College and University Student Services (CACUSS) in 1971; previous Association of University Student Personnel Services (CAUSPS-1) in 1953; Council of Associations of University Student Personnel Services (CAUSPS-2) in 1961<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cacuss.ca/about.html|title=About Us|website=www.cacuss.ca|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref>

Today, CACUSS<ref name=":7" /> arranges conferences, develops network and discussion within postsecondary community, publish a national magazine Communiqué<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cacuss.ca/Communique.html|title=Communiqué|website=www.cacuss.ca|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref> and remains the leader of Canadian student affairs professionals. The CACUSS has included variety of organizations that recognize the specific needs of all provinces including Indigenous students, students with disabilities, financial aid, academic integrity and judicial affairs, international students, etc.<ref name=":03" />

Student affairs are also impacted by governance and decision making efforts in the form of [[students' union]]s at post-secondary educational institutions. In most provinces, students' unions are recognized as mandatory through legislation.<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 20, 2020|title=Act respecting the accreditation and financing of students' associations|url=http://legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/A-3.01|access-date=March 7, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=February 24, 2021|title=University Act [RSBC 1996] CHAPTER 468|url=https://www.bclaws.gov.bc.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/96468_01|access-date=March 7, 2021}}</ref><ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=December 9, 2020|title=Post-Secondary Learning Act|url=https://www.qp.alberta.ca/documents/acts/p19p5.pdf|access-date=March 7, 2021}}</ref> In Ontario, these entities are formally recognized under Bill 184 2011<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|title=College and University Student Associations Act, 2011|url=https://www.ola.org/en/legislative-business/bills/parliament-39/session-2/bill-184|website=Legislative Assembly of Ontario|language=en|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> which acknowledges the autonomy of student associations in order to foster governance, accountability, and collaboration between student associations and post-secondary educational institutions, as well as addressing issues related to fee collection and remittance between these two parties. The impact that student associations can have on student affairs issues is exemplified by challenges to the [[Student Choice Initiative]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Government for the People to Lower Student Tuition Burden by 10 per cent|url=https://news.ontario.ca/maesd/en/2019/01/government-for-the-people-to-lower-student-tuition-burden-by-10-per-cent.html|website=news.ontario.ca|language=en|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> where the [[Canadian Federation of Students]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Canadian Federation of Students|url=https://cfs-fcee.ca/|website=Canadian Federation of Students {{!}} Fédération canadienne des étudiantes et étudiants|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> and the [[York Federation of Students]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=We the Students|url=http://www.yfs.ca/wethestudents|website=York Federation of Students|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> challenged an initiative launched by the Ontario Ministry of Training, Colleges & Universities. This particular initiative was aimed at providing students with the ability to opt-out of various supplementary fees during their enrolment process and also to provide them with a transparent itemization of their tuition and supplementary fees.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Student Choice Initiative|url=https://studentchoiceinitiative.yorku.ca/}}</ref> The opposition by the Canadian Federation of Students and the York Federation of Students ultimately led to the successful overturning of the Student Choice Initiative, by the Divisional Court of Ontario.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cfsontario.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Cdn-Fed-Students-v-Ontario-20191121.pdf|title=Order by Divisional Court of Ontario}}</ref> This event is noteworthy with respect to student affairs, because it demonstrates the impact that student associations can have on downstream funding necessary for delivering student services.

Canadian student affairs continues to develop and prepare professionals by recognizing demands of growing [[Internationalization of higher education|internationalization]], diversity and sustainability in higher education. The specialization and further expansion is identified to focus on students' mental health,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ontariosuniversities.ca/issues-priorities/student-supports|title=Mental Health|website=Ontario's Universities|date=10 November 2017 |language=en|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref> experiential learning,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.univcan.ca/media-room/publications/study-on-experiential-learning-and-pathways-to-employment-for-canadian-youth/|title=Study on experiential learning and pathways to employment for Canadian youth|website=Universities Canada|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref> academic integrity<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.universityaffairs.ca/career-advice/responsibilities-may-include/slowing-the-momentum-of-academic-misconduct/|title=Slowing the momentum of academic misconduct|website=University Affairs|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref> and equity, diversity and inclusion<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.univcan.ca/priorities/equity-diversity-inclusion/|title=Equity, diversity and inclusion|website=Universities Canada|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-16}}</ref> to enhance their learning achievement and wellbeing.<ref name=":03" />

===South Africa===

Student affairs did not become a unitary profession in [[South Africa]] until the end of [[apartheid]] in 1994.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Perspectives on Student Affairs in South Africa|chapter=Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1920677445|isbn=978-1920677442|year=2014|editor-first=McGlory|editor-last=Speckman|editor2-first=Martin|editor2-last=Mandew|page=1|publisher=African Minds }}</ref>  As in other countries of sub-Saharan Africa, South African universities have broadly followed an American model of student affairs administration.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Perspectives on Student Affairs in South Africa|chapter=Key challenges facing Student Affairs: An international perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1920677445|isbn=978-1920677442|year=2014|first1=Birgit|last1=Schreiber|publisher=African Minds |editor=Speckman |display-editors=etal }}</ref>  Difficulties in the implementation of student affairs principles from [[developed country|developed countries]] has been characterized as due to South Africa's status as a developing country.{{sfn|Schreiber|2014|p=11}}

===United Kingdom===

Student affairs draws its origins on the [[Oxbridge]] model and the Anglo-American concept that schools stand ''[[in loco parentis]]'', creating a greater legal obligation for the university to govern student life.{{sfn|Deardorff|2012|p=237}}  However, professional student affairs administration in the United Kingdom is of relatively recent date: student affairs departments became a feature of all United Kingdom universities in 1992, having previously been widespread only in the [[new universities]].{{sfn|Ludeman|2009|p=288}}

===United States===
[[File:Shimer College student life 1960.jpg|thumb|Idealized depiction of student life from a 1960 [[Shimer College]] handbook]]
The profession of student affairs "grew from the campus up, not from theory down".{{sfn|Cowley|1934|p=4}} Early higher education in the United States was based on the Oxbridge model of education; thus, most early institutions were residential and the tutors lived in the halls with the students. These men were the precursor to student affairs professionals in the United States. Typically, they served as dean of discipline and ''[[in loco parentis]]'' (in place of the parent). These early student affairs practitioners' focus was on control of the student as opposed to modern philosophy which focuses on the development of the student as a whole, but has always connected those interested in the welfare of students with students needing assistance.{{sfn|Cowley|1934|p=4}}

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as the number of [[land grant university|land-grant institutions]] increased, enrollment expanded, student populations began to include women, the idea of vocationalism began to influence academics and the institution's president began to be viewed as "the chief moral front".{{sfn|Cowley|1934|p=6}} With these changes it became apparent that additional staff members were needed to allow the president to respond to the issues of finance and faculty recruitment.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The handbook of student affairs administration |date=2023 |publisher=Jossey-Bass |isbn=978-1-119-69599-8 |editor-last=McClellan |editor-first=George S. |edition=Fifth |location=San Francisco |editor-last2=Kiyama |editor-first2=Judy Marquez |editor-last3=Jossey-Bass Inc}}</ref>

These first student affairs professionals were the [[dean of women]], dean of men and personnel workers. Many of the early deans came from "teaching roles in the liberal arts".{{sfn|Cowley|1934|p=8}} The first dean of men was [[LeBaron Russell Briggs]] at [[Harvard University]] in 1890,{{sfn|Cowley|1934}} with the first dean of women being [[Adelia Field Johnston]] in 1869 at the [[Oberlin College]] as lady principal and later named dean of women in 1894.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oberlin.edu/library/art/exhibits/johnston/struggle.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909061936/http://oberlin.edu/library/art/exhibits/johnston/struggle.html|date=June 28, 2007|archive-date=2011-09-09|title=The Struggle for a College Education }}</ref> [[Alice Freeman Palmer]] in 1892 at the [[University of Chicago]] was the first to hold the title of dean of women.

The dean of men's position typically included discipline, but could vary depending on the institution's overall philosophy.  The position description might have read, "that officer in the administration who undertakes to assist the men students [to] achieve the utmost of which they are individually capable, through personal effort on their behalf, and through mobilizing in their behalf all the forces within the University which can be made to serve this end".<ref>Secretarial Notes, 1928, p.&nbsp;37</ref> The one thing that remained consistent was the responsibility to deal with men and help them develop to their potential.{{sfn|Cowley|1934|p=9}}

Deans of Women were trail blazers as women in positions of authority. Not only were women at colleges and universities a new development, but women as staff members even more new. The institutional leadership was dominated by men, but still they persevered including the founding of what is now the [[American Association of University Women]] (AAUW) in 1903.

In December 1918 Robert Rienow, the dean of men at the [[University of Iowa]], wrote a letter to [[Thomas Arkle Clark]], dean of men at the [[University of Illinois]], suggesting a meeting that is now recognized as the founding of the organization now known as NASPA - Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naspa.org/|title=NASPA - Student Affairs Professionals in Higher Education|website=NASPA.org|access-date=May 7, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naspa.org/about/index.cfm?show=5|title=NASPA History|website=NASPA.org|access-date=June 26, 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429205746/http://www.naspa.org/about/index.cfm?show=5|archive-date=April 29, 2008}}</ref>

In 1924, [[May L. Cheney]], who organized a teacher placement office at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], helped form the National Association of Appointment Secretaries (NAAS). That year, NAAS met for the first time and came as guests of the National Association of Deans of Women (NADW) to a convention sponsored by the Department Superintendence of the National Education Association. In 1929, forty-six NAAS members registered for the Sixth Annual Convention. NAAS became the National Association of Personnel and Placement Officers (NAPPO). The name [[American College Personnel Association (ACPA)]] was adopted in 1931. Association communication consisted of one mailed newsletter, the ''Personnel-O-Gram'' (P-O-G). In 1937, the Student Personnel Point of View<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myacpa.org/pub/documents/1937.pdf|title=Student Personnel Point of View|website=MyACPA.org|access-date=May 7, 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908121506/http://www.myacpa.org/pub/documents/1937.pdf|archive-date=September 8, 2012}}</ref> statement was developed by leaders of the [[American Council on Education (ACE)]] and ACPA.

The Student Personnel Points of View,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.naspa.org/pubs/resources.cfm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002224256/http://www.naspa.org/pubs/resources.cfm|url-status=dead|title=Student Personnel Points of View|archivedate=October 2, 2006}}</ref> written in 1937 and 1949, further developed the area of student affairs.

In the 1960s the [[Student development theories|student development]] movement arose. Based on student development theory, it originated in the context of broad campus unrest during the 1960s. The aim of student development was to better integrate students into mass higher education and modern society.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McNeely |first1=Ian F. |title=Student Development Theory and the Transformation of Student Affairs in the 1970s |journal=History of Education Quarterly |date=February 2024 |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=66–87 |doi=10.1017/heq.2023.39}}</ref>

In the 1970s the landscape of student affairs began to change when the voting age was lowered and 18-year-olds were granted adult status in the eyes of the law.
<ref name="Handbook of Student Affairs 2">
{{cite book
|last1=Rhatigan
|first1=James J.
|title=The Handbook of Student Affairs Administration, The History and Philosophy of Student Affairs
|edition=2
|year=2000
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|location=San Francisco, CA
|pages=3–13
}}</ref><ref name="Student Residential Housing II">
{{cite book
|last1=Cowley
|first1=W.J.
|title=The History of Student Residential Housing, School and Society
|edition=40 
|year=1934
|pages=705–712, 758–764
}}</ref><ref name="American Higher Education, Second Edition: A History">
{{cite book
|last1=Lucas
|first1=Christopher J.
|title=American Higher Education, Second Edition: A History
|edition=2
|date=March 2006
|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan
}}</ref>

In the United States as early as 1992, student affairs began to see a change in the reporting structure.<ref>Barr, Desler, & Associates, p.&nbsp;125</ref> Chief student affairs officers began to shift to the [[Provost (education)|provost]], the chief academic officer.