Editing Stupa (section)

==Description and history==
{{see also|Cetiya|Tumulus|Megalith}}

[[File:Megalithic burial mound, India.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Megalith]]ic burial mound ([[tumulus]]) with chamber, India]]
{{multiple image
| align    = right
| caption_align = center
| image1   = Gordion82.JPG
| width1   = 160
| caption1 = The "Tomb of [[Midas]]" in [[Gordion]], dated to c. 740 BCE
| image2   = Bin Tepe, funeral mound.jpg
| width2   = 160
| caption2 = Royal funeral tumulus of King [[Alyattes]], [[Lydia]], 6th c. BCE
| image3   = Amrit Sepolcro - GAR - 1-01.jpg
| width3   = 80
| caption3 = [[Amrit]], [[Phoenicia]], 5th c. BCE
}}

Stupas may have originated as pre-Buddhist [[tumulus|tumuli]] in which [[śramaṇa]]s were buried in a seated position,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buddhanet.net/stupa.htm |access-date=7 January 2013|title=Buddhist Art and Architecture: Symbolism of the Stupa / Chorten|date=14 August 2006}}</ref> called [[chaitya|caitya]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.upenn.edu/coursepages/hist086/material/sanchi.htm|access-date=7 January 2013|title= The Buddhist stupa: origin and development|date=13 January 2005}}</ref>

In early Buddhist inscriptions in India, ''stupa'' and ''caitya'' appear to be almost interchangeable, though ''caitya'' has a broader meaning, and unlike ''stupa'' does not define an [[architectural form]]. In pre-Buddhist India, ''caitya'' was a term for a shrine, sanctuary, or holy place in the landscape, generally outdoors, inhabited by, or sacred to, a particular deity. In the ''[[Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra]]'', near the end of his life, the Buddha remarks to [[Ananda]] how beautiful are the various ''caitya'' around [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]].{{sfnp|Skilling|2016|p=25}} In later times and in other countries, [[cetiya]]/caitya implies the presence of important relics. Both words have forms prefixed by ''maha'' for "great", "large", or "important", but scholars find the difference between a ''mahastupa'' and a ''stupa'', or ''mahacetiya'' and ''cetiya'', hard to pin down.{{sfnp|Skilling|2016|pp=23–24}}

Some authors have suggested that stupas were derived from a wider cultural tradition from the [[Mediterranean]] to the [[Ganges Valley]]<ref>"It is probably traceable to a common cultural inheritance, stretching from the Mediterranean to the Ganges valley, and manifested by the sepulchres, conical mounds of earth on a circular foundation, of about the eighth century B.C. found in [[Erythrae|Eritrea]] and [[Lydia]]." {{cite book |last1=Rao |first1=P. R. Ramachandra |title=Amaravati |date=2002 |publisher=Youth Advancement, Tourism & Cultural Department Government of Andhra Pradesh |page=33 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h-jVAAAAMAAJ }}</ref> and can be related to the conical mounds on circular bases from the 8th century BCE that are found in [[Phrygia]] (tomb of [[Midas]], 8th c. BCE), [[Lydia]] (tomb of [[Alyattes]], 6th c. BCE), or in [[Phoenicia]] (tombs of [[Amrit]], 5th c. BCE).<ref>On the hemispherical Phenician tombs of Amrit: {{cite book |last1=Coomaraswamy |first1=Ananda K. |title=History of Indian and Indonesian art |date=1972 |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.52349/page/n313 12] |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.52349}}</ref><ref>Commenting on [[Gisbert Combaz]]: "In his study L'évolution du stupa en Asie, he even observed that "long before India, the classical Orient was inspired by the shape of the tumulus for constructing its tombs: Phrygia, Lydia, Phenicia ." in {{cite book |last1=Bénisti |first1=Mireille |last2=K |first2=Thanikaimony |title=Stylistics of Buddhist art in India |date=2003 |publisher=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts |isbn=9788173052415 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hO9OAAAAYAAJ }}</ref> Some authors suggest stupas emerged from [[megalith]]ic mound burials with chambers, which likely represent proto-stupas.{{sfnp|Menon|2016}}{{sfnp|Schopen|2004|pp=361–374}}{{sfnp|Bisht|2014}}

Archaeologists in India have observed that a number of early Buddhist stupas or burials are found in the vicinity of much older, pre-historic burials, including megalithic burial sites.{{sfnp|Schopen|2004|pp=361–374}} This includes sites associated with the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], where broken Indus-era pottery was incorporated into later Buddhist burials.{{sfnp|Schopen|2004|pp=361–374}} Scholars have noted structural and functional features of the stupa (including its general mound shape and the practice of surrounding stupas with a stone, relic chamber, or wooden railing) with both pre-[[Maurya Empire|Mauryan-era]] cairn and pre-historic megalithic "round mound" burials with chambers found in India, which likely represent a "proto-stupa".{{sfnp|Menon|2016}}{{sfnp|Schopen|2004|pp=361–374}} In [[Dholavira]], an archeological site associated with the Indus Valley Civilization, there are several large and high "hemispherical monuments" of tumulus with brick-masonry found with burial chambers inside. Among them, Tumulus-1 and Tumulus-2 mounds were excavated. They consist of a deep and wide rock-cut chamber, surrounded on the ground by a massive circular mud-brick structure made in two tiers, and filled in and topped with earth to form a domical shape.{{sfnp|Bisht|2014}} There is also evidence of plastering on the exterior of Tumulus-1, bearing a 10-mm-thick [[plaster]] of pinkish-white clay over brick masonry.{{sfnp|Bisht|2014}} These forms of hemispherical monuments or tumulus of brick masonry with similar layouts may have been inspirations for later stupas.{{sfnp|Bisht|2014}} Some stupas not believed to have been looted have been found empty when excavated, as have some prehistoric cairn sites, and animal bones are suspected to have occasionally been deposited at both types of sites.{{sfnp|Schopen|2004|pp=361–374}}

===Mounds for the relics of the Buddha (5th century BCE)===
{{Further|Buddhist architecture}}
[[File:Stupas-Original-00020.jpg|thumb|The [[Piprahwa]] stupa is one of the earliest surviving stupas.]]
[[File:Buddha's ashes Stupa, Vaishali, Bihar.jpg|right|thumb|[[Relic Stupa of Vaishali]], built by the [[Licchavi (kingdom)|Licchavis]], and possibly the earliest archaeologically known stupa]]

Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped structure, started to be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the Buddha.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''Pagoda''.</ref> After his [[parinirvana]], Buddha's remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight mounds, with two further mounds encasing the urn and the embers.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/>

According to some early Buddhist sources, the Buddha himself had suggested this treatment, and when asked what a stupa was, had demonstrated the basic design: he folded his robe on the ground, placed his begging bowl upside down on it, with his staff above that.<ref>{{cite book |last=Soekmono |first=R. |title=Chandi Borobudur: A Monument of Mankind |page=39 |year=1976 |place=Paris |publisher=Unesco Press |isbn=92-3-101292-4 |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000020097 |access-date=18 March 2025}}</ref>

The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas, in [[Rajagriha]], [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]], [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]], [[Allakappa]], [[Ramagrama]], [[Pava]], [[Kushinagar]], and [[Vethapida]].{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=140–174}} Lars Fogelin has stated that the [[Relic Stupa of Vaishali]]  is likely the earliest archaeologically known stupa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fogelin |first1=Lars |title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199948239 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lahiri |first1=Nayanjot |title=Ashoka in Ancient India |date=2015 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674057777 |pages=246–247}}</ref>

[[Guard rail]]s—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a [[Coping (architecture)|coping]]—became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa.{{sfnp|Chandra|2008}} The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay homage to the stupas: "And whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap benefits for a long time".{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=143}} This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical{{Clarify|date=February 2024|reason=it should be made clear what is meant by "Classical" in this context.}} period.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=143}}

===Expansion under Ashoka (250 BCE)===
According to Buddhist tradition, Emperor [[Ashoka]] (rule: 273–232 BCE) recovered the relics of the Buddha from the earlier stupas (except from the [[Ramagrama stupa]]), and erected 84,000 stupas to distribute the relics across India. In effect, many stupas are thought to date originally from the time of Ashoka, such as [[Sanchi]] or [[Kesaria stupa|Kesariya]], where he also erected pillars with his inscriptions, and possibly [[Bharhut]], [[Amaravati Stupa|Amaravati]], or [[Dharmarajika Stupa|Dharmarajika]].{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=140–174}} Ashoka also established the [[Pillars of Ashoka]] throughout his realm, generally next to Buddhist stupas.

The first known appearance of the word "stupa" is from [[:File:Nigali Sagar word Stupa.jpg|an inscribed dedication]] by Ashoka on the [[Nigali Sagar]] pillar (spelled in [[Pali]] in the [[Brahmi script]] as 𑀣𑀼𑀩𑁂 ''thube'' ).{{sfnp|Skilling|2016|p=23}}

===Decorated stupas (from 125 BCE)===
Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first attempts at [[Sanchi Stupa No.2]] (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and scenes of the life of the Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE), [[Bodh Gaya]] (60 BCE), [[Mathura]] (125–60 BCE), again at Sanchi for the elevation of the [[torana]]s (1st century BCE/CE), and then Amaravati (1st–2nd century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=149–150}} The decorative embellishment of stupas also underwent considerable development in the northwest, in the area of [[Gandhara]], with instances such as the [[Butkara Stupa]] ("monumentalized" with [[Hellenistic]] decorative elements from the 2nd century BCE)<ref>"De l'Indus a l'Oxus : archaeologie de l'Asie Centrale", Pierfrancesco Callieri, p. 212: "The diffusion, from the second century BCE, of Hellenistic influences in the architecture of [[Swat District|Swat]] is also attested by the archaeological searches at the sanctuary of [[Butkara Stupa|Butkara I]], which saw its stupa "monumentalized" at that exact time by basal elements and decorative alcoves derived from [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic architecture]]".</ref> or the [[Loriyan Tangai|Loriyan Tangai stupas]] (2nd century CE).

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
Sanchi Stupa number 2 KSP 3660.jpg|[[Sanchi Stupa No.2]], the earliest known stupa with important displays of decorative reliefs, c. 125 BCE<ref>Didactic Narration: Jataka Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of Jataka Representations in China, Alexander Peter Bell, LIT Verlag Münster, 2000 [https://books.google.com/books?id=77hHrXX4COgC&pg=PA15 pp. 15ff]</ref>
East Gateway and Railings Bharhut Stupa.jpg|East Gateway and Railings of [[Bharhut]] Stupa. Sculptured railings: 115 BCE, toranas: 75 BCE.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=149–150}}
Sanchi1 N-MP-220.jpg|The Great Stupa at Sanchi<ref>World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 p. 50 by Alī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, New York [https://books.google.com/books?id=fg-lGID3WpQC&pg=PA50]</ref> Decorated toranas built from the 1st c. BCE to the 1st c. CE.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=149–150}}
</gallery>

===Development in Gandhara (3rd century BCE–5th century CE)===
[[File:ButkaraStupa.jpg|thumb|Butkara Stupa in Gandhara]]

The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since Buddhism spread to [[Central Asia]], China, and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara, the stylistic evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa (and related artistic or [[architectural form]]s) in these areas.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=181}} The Gandhara stupa followed several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative elements, leading eventually to the development of the [[pagoda]] tower.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=182–183}} The main stupa types are, in chronological order:

# The [[Dharmarajika Stupa]], with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar stupas are the [[Butkara Stupa]], the [[Manikyala]] stupa, or the Chakpat stupa.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=173}}
# The [[Saidu Sharif Stupa]], pillared and [[quincunxial]], with a flight of stairs to a dome elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara miniatures represent this type (1st century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=174–176}}
# The [[Loriyan Tangai]] stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in many ways the classic Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=176–177}}
# The near-pyramidal [[Jaulian]] stupa (2nd century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=179}}
# The [[cruciform]] type, as in the [[Bhamala Stupa]], with flights of stairs in the four cardinal directions (4th century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=178}}
# The towering design of the second [[Kanishka Stupa]] (4th–5th century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA179 179–180]}}

<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Restored_view_of_the_Manikyala_Stupa.jpg|[[Manikyala Stupa]], from the period of [[Kaniska I]]
StupaWithPillarsGandhara2ndCentury.jpg|A model resembling the [[Saidu Sharif Stupa]], with square base and four columns (1st century CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=174–176}}
Loriyan Tangai complete Stupa.jpg|[[Loriyan Tangai]] decorated stupa, in the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of Gandhara (2nd century CE).
Jaulian Stupa A11 reliquary.jpg|A tower-shaped stupa, thought to be the design of the second (rebuilt) [[Kanishka Stupa]], [[Jaulian]] monastery{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA179 179–180]}}
Stupa Reliquary Kushan period, about 2nd century CE.jpg|Stupa-shaped reliquary, [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] period, about 2nd century CE
</gallery>

====Origin of the pyramidal temple====
{{multiple image|total_width=400
| header=Pyramidal temples
| align    = right
| caption_align = center
| image1   = Kumrahar Mahabodhi plaque.jpg
| caption1 = The Mahabodhi Temple in 150–200 CE
| image2   = Top of Temple.jpg
| caption2 = The [[Mahabodhi Temple]]: a stepped pyramid with round stupa on top{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}}
| image3   = India, Bihar, 10th century - Model of the Sikhara of a Buddhist Temple - 1971.167 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif
| caption3 = Model of the [[sikhara]] of a Buddhist temple; 900s
}}

It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid may have derived from the design of the stepped stupas that developed in Gandhara. The [[Mahabodhi Temple]] in Bodh Gaya is one such example, formed of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}} The structure is crowned by the shape of a hemispherical stupa topped by [[finial]]s, forming a logical elongation of the stepped Gandharan stupas such as those seen in [[Jaulian]].{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}}

Although the current structure of the Mahabdhodi Temple dates to the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] period (5th century CE), the "Plaque of Mahabhodi Temple", discovered in [[Kumrahar]] and dated to 150–200 CE, based on its dated [[Kharoshthi]] inscriptions and combined finds of [[Huvishka]] coins, suggests that the pyramidal structure already existed in the 2nd century CE.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}} This is confirmed by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}}

This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the [[aniconic]] stupa dedicated to the cult of relics, to the [[Cultural icon|iconic]] temple with multiple images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.{{sfnp|Le|2010|pp=238–248}} This design was influential in the development of later [[Hindu temple]]s.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=234}}

===Expansion in Asia===
====Asian stupas====
[[File:Pagoda of Songyue Temple, 2015-09-25 20.jpg|thumb|upright|The Chinese [[Songyue Pagoda]] (523 CE) is thought to derive from the Gandharan tower-stupa model.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=180}}]]
[[File:Row of stupas on roadside east of Leh, Ladakh.jpg|thumb|Row of [[chorten]] stupas on roadside east of Leh, Ladakh]]

Stupa architecture was adopted in [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asia]], where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> The Indian gateway arches, ''torana'', reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), ''torii''</ref> Some scholars hold that ''[[torii]]'' derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE–11th century CE).<ref>[http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/ Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System (2001), ''torii''.]</ref> In [[Tibet]], the stupa became the chorten,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutanmajestictravel.com/buddhism/stupa|access-date=17 January 2013|title=Stupa – Bhutanese, Nepalese, Tibetan Style Chortens or Stupa is the symbol of enlightened mind|publisher=Bhutan Majestic Travel|date=17 January 2013|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231185528/http://www.bhutanmajestictravel.com/buddhism/stupa|archive-date=31 December 2012}}</ref> and the pagoda in East Asia.<ref>''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th ed., Columbia University Press{{page?|date=July 2024}}</ref> The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. In general, however, "stupa" is the term used for a Buddhist structure in India or Southeast Asia, while "pagoda" refers to a building in East Asia that can be entered and that may be used for secular purposes. However, use of the term varies by region. For example, stupas in Burma tend to be referred to as "pagodas".{{citation needed|date=February 2024}}

Stupas were built in [[Sri Lanka]] soon after [[Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura]] converted to Buddhism. The first was the [[Thuparamaya]]. Later, many more were built over the years, including the [[Jetavanaramaya]] in Anuradhapura.

====Development of the pagoda====
The Asian words for pagoda (''tā'' in Chinese, ''t'ap'' in Korean, ''tháp'' in Vietnamese, ''tō'' in Japanese) are all thought to derive from the [[Pali]] word for stupa, ''thupa'', with the [[Sanskrit]] pronunciation being ''stupa''.{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=183}} In particular the type of the tower-like stupa, the last stage of Gandharan stupa development, visible in the second [[Kanishka Stupa]] (4th century), is thought to be the precursor of the tower stupas in [[Turkestan]] and the Chinese pagodas such as [[Songyue Pagoda]] (523 CE).{{sfnp|Le|2010|p=180}}