Editing Sweyn Forkbeard (section)

==Life==
[[File:Sweyn Forkbeard coin.jpg|thumb|A coin of Sweyn Forkbeard, minted in 995; this is the earliest known coin with a Latin inscription minted in Scandinavia, based on Anglo-Saxon models and made by an English moneyer (obv.: ''ZVEN REX AD DENER'' "Sven, king of [or among] the Danes", rev.: ''GOD-WINE M-AN D-NER'' "Godwine, moneyer among the Danes").<ref name="Bolton2009"/><ref name="HybelPoulsen2007"/>
]]

Historiographical sources on Sweyn's life include the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' (where his name is rendered as ''Swegen''),<ref>''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''. [http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/c/c-L.html Manuscripts C] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726221008/http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/c/c-L.html |date=26 July 2011 }}, [http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/d/d-L.html D] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419043900/http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/d/d-L.html |date=19 April 2014 }}, and [http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/e/e-L.html E] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212153114/http://asc.jebbo.co.uk/e/e-L.html |date=12 February 2009 }}. Edited by Jebson, Tony. Accessed 18 August 2011.</ref> [[Adam of Bremen]]'s 11th-century ''[[Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum|Deeds of the Bishops of Hamburg]]'', and [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s 13th-century ''[[Heimskringla]]''.<ref name="Howard">{{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzXp1yYjq94C |title=Swein Forkbeard's Invasions and the Danish Conquest of England, 991–1017 |publisher=Boydell Press |year=2003 |isbn=0851159281 |location=Woodbridge |pages=7–8 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=14 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414015622/https://books.google.com/books?id=jzXp1yYjq94C |url-status=live }}</ref> Conflicting accounts of Sweyn's later life also appear in the ''[[Encomium Emmae Reginae]]'', an 11th-century Latin ''[[encomium]]'' in honour of his son king Cnut's queen [[Emma of Normandy]], along with ''[[John of Worcester|Chronicon ex chronicis]]'' by [[Florence of Worcester]], another 11th-century author.

According to [[Adam of Bremen]], Sweyn was the son of Harald Bluetooth and a woman named "Gunhild". When Harald converted to Christianity, Sweyn was baptised "Otto" (in honour of German king [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]]).<ref>[[Adam of Bremen]] ''Gesta II.3''. Ed. Schmeidler, trans. Tschan, p. 56</ref>

Sweyn married the widow of [[Eric the Victorious|Erik, king of Sweden]], named "Gunhild" in some sources,<ref name="DSD">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Svend 1. Tveskæg |encyclopedia=Den Store Danske |url=http://www.denstoredanske.dk/Danmarks_geografi_og_historie/Danmarks_historie/Danmark_f%C3%B8r_Reformationen/Svend_1._Tvesk%C3%A6g?highlight=Svend%20Tvesk%C3%A6g |access-date=27 February 2013}}</ref> or identified as an unnamed sister of [[Bolesław I the Brave|Boleslaus, ruler of Poland]].<ref name="Sawyer2004"/>

Historian Ian Howard describes Sweyn as "a competent military commander, politician and diplomat" who made "a formidable and successful king."<ref name="Howard"/>

===Revolt and possible exile===
In the mid-980s, Sweyn revolted against his father and seized the throne. Harald was driven into exile and died shortly afterwards in November 986 or 987.<ref name="Sawyer2004"/>

Adam of Bremen depicted Sweyn as a rebellious pagan who persecuted Christians, betrayed his father and expelled German bishops from [[Scania]] and [[Zealand]]. According to Adam, Sweyn was sent into exile by his father's German friends and deposed in favour of king [[Eric the Victorious]] of Sweden, whom Adam wrote ruled Denmark until his death in 994 or 995. Sørensen (2001) argues that Adam's depiction of Sweyn may be overly negative, as seen through an "unsympathetic and intolerant eye".<ref>Sørensen, M.P. (2001). "Religions Old and New", ''The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings''. Ed. P.H. Sawyer. Oxford University Press (2001), p. 202</ref>
Adam's account is thus not seen as entirely reliable; the claimed 14 years' exile of Sweyn to Scotland does not seem to agree with Sweyn's building churches in Denmark throughout the same period, including the churches in [[Lund]] and [[Roskilde]].<ref name="Lund">Lund, Niels (2001). "The Danish Empire and the End of the Viking Age", ''The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings''. Ed. P. H. Sawyer. Oxford University Press, 2001, pp. 167–181. {{ISBN|0192854348}}.</ref> According to Adam, Sweyn was punished by God for leading the uprising which led to king Harald's death, and had to spend fourteen years abroad (i.e. 986–1000). The historicity of this exile, or its duration, is uncertain. Adam writes that Sweyn was shunned by all those with whom he sought refuge, but was finally allowed to live for a while in Scotland. Adam also suggests that Sweyn in his youth lived among heathens, and only achieved success as a ruler after accepting Christianity.

===Battle of Svolder===
[[File:Norway 1000 AD.png|thumb|right|upright|Division of Norway after the [[Battle of Svolder]] according to ''[[Heimskringla]]'': The red area was under direct Danish control, with Sweyn ruling it as a Danish extension.
[[Eiríkr Hákonarson]] ruled the purple area as a fiefdom from Sweyn Forkbeard. The yellow area was under [[Sveinn Hákonarson]], his half-brother, held as a fief of [[Olof Skötkonung]], the Swedish king.]]

[[Harald Bluetooth]] had already established a foothold in Norway, controlling [[Viken (region)|Viken]] in {{Circa|970}}. He may have lost control over his Norwegian claims following his defeat against a German army in 974.

Sweyn built an alliance with Swedish king [[Olof Skötkonung]] and [[Eiríkr Hákonarson|Eirik Hákonarson]], [[Earls of Lade|Jarl of Lade]], against Norwegian king [[Olaf Tryggvason]].
The [[Kings' sagas]] ascribe the causes of the alliance to Olaf Tryggvason's ill-fated marriage proposal to [[Sigrid the Haughty]] and his problematic marriage to [[Tyra of Denmark|Thyri]], sister of Sweyn Forkbeard. According to the sagas, Sigrid pushed Sweyn into war with Olaf because Olaf had slapped her.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bagge|first=Sverre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NFJNAgAAQBAJ|title=Cross and Scepter: The Rise of the Scandinavian Kingdoms from the Vikings to the Reformation|date=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1400850105|pages=31|access-date=22 July 2021|archive-date=23 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423120140/https://books.google.com/books?id=NFJNAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

The allies attacked and defeated king Olaf in the western [[Baltic Sea]] when he was sailing home from an expedition, in the [[Battle of Svolder]], fought in September 999 or 1000. The victors divided Norway among them. According to the account of the ''Heimskringla'', Sweyn regained direct control of [[Viken (region)|Viken district]].

King Olaf of Sweden received four districts in [[Trondheim]] as well as [[Møre og Romsdal|Møre]], [[Romsdal]] and [[Rånrike]] (the ''[[Fagrskinna]]'', by contrast, says that the Swedish part consisted of [[Oppland]] and a part of Trondheim). He gave these to his son in law, Jarl [[Sweyn Haakonsson|Svein Hákonarson]], to hold as a vassal. The rest of Norway was ruled by Eirik Hákonarson as King Svein's vassal.

The Jarls Eirik and Svein proved strong, competent rulers, and their reign was prosperous. Most sources say that they adopted Christianity but allowed the people religious freedom, leading to a backlash against Christianity which undid much of [[Olaf Tryggvason]]'s missionary work.<ref>This is according to ''Heimskringla'' and ''Fagrskinna'', see Lee M. Hollander (trans.) (1991) ''Heimskringla'', p. 244 and Finlay Finlay, Alison (editor and translator) (2004) ''Fagrskinna'', p. 130.

According to ''[[Historia Norwegie]]'' and ''[[Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum|Ágrip]]'', the Jarls actively worked to uproot Christianity in Norway, see Driscoll, M.J. (editor) (1995). Ágrip af Nóregskonungasǫgum. Viking Society for Northern Research, p. 35 and Ekrem, Inger (editor), Lars Boje Mortensen (editor) and Peter Fisher (translator) (2003). Historia Norwegie (2003), p. 101.</ref>

===Religion===
Sweyn apparently recruited priests and bishops from England, in preference to the [[Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen|Archbishopric of Bremen]]. In part, this reflected the fact that there were numerous Christian priests of Danish origin in the [[Danelaw]], while Sweyn had few personal connections to Germany. Sweyn's preference for the English church may also have had a political motive, because German bishops were an integral part of the state.{{Citation needed|date=December 2024|reason=Reliable source needed for first three sentences. Source linked later in section makes no mention of religion, priests, or the church.}} It has been suggested that Sweyn was seeking to pre-empt any diminution of his independence by German leaders.<ref name="Lund2">Lund, Niels (1986). "The armies of Swein Forkbeard and Cnut: leding or li(th)" ''Anglo-Saxon England'' 15 (1986), pp. 39–40''The Christianization of Scandinavia'', Birgit Sawyer, et al., ed. Kungälv: Viktoria Bokforlag, p. 80. {{ISBN|918670804X}}.</ref> This may have been a reason for Adam of Bremen's apparent hostility in his accounts of Sweyn; by accentuating English ecclesiastical influence in his kingdom, Sweyn was effectively spurning the Archbishop of Bremen.

===Invasions of England===
The "[[John of Wallingford (d. 1258)|Chronicle of John of Wallingford]]" (c. 1225–1250) records Sweyn's involvement in raids against [[England]] during 1002–1005, 1006–1007 and 1009–1012. According to Ashley (1998), Sweyn's invasion was partly motivated by the [[St Brice's Day Massacre]] in November 1002, where Danes in England were massacred under orders from [[Æthelred the Unready]], in which Sweyn's sister and brother-in-law are said to have been killed,<ref>Ashley, Mike (1998). ''British Monarchs: A complete genealogy, gazetteer and biographical Encyclopaedia of the Kings and Queens of Britain''. Robinson Publishing, p. 483: "Probably his [Æthelred's] worst decision was the St. Brice's day massacre on 13 November 1002... he ordered the killing of every Dane who lived in England, except the Anglo-Danes in the Danelaw. The massacre brought back to English shores the Danish commander Swein, whose sister and brother-in-law had been killed in the massacre".</ref> but Lund (2001) argues that the main motivation for the raids was more likely the prospect of revenue.<ref name="Lund"/>

At the outset of the invasions, Sweyn negotiated an agreement with Duke Richard II of Normandy whereby the Danes gained permission to sell their spoils of war in Normandy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bauduin|first=Pierre|date=2021|title=Quasi in domo propria sub securitate sanaretur: a peace agreement between King Swein Forkbeard and Duke Richard II of Normandy|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/emed.12480|journal=Early Medieval Europe|volume=29|issue=3|pages=394–416|doi=10.1111/emed.12480|s2cid=236400372|issn=1468-0254|access-date=10 June 2021|archive-date=10 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610102048/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/emed.12480|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Sweyn campaigned in Wessex and East Anglia in 1003–1004, but a famine forced him to return to Denmark in 1005. Further raids took place in 1006–1007, and in 1009–1012 [[Thorkell the Tall]] led a Viking invasion into England. [[Simon Keynes]] regards it as uncertain whether Sweyn supported these invasions, but "whatever the case, he was quick to exploit the disruption caused by the activities of Thorkell's army".<ref name=Blackwell/>
Sweyn acquired massive sums of ''[[Danegeld]]'' through the raids. In 1013, he is reported to have personally led his forces in a full-scale invasion of England.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Peter Hunter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9eN87VsPaw0C |title=An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0521537770 |edition=3rd |page=98 |access-date=25 October 2015 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702224337/https://books.google.com/books?id=9eN87VsPaw0C |url-status=live }}</ref>

The medieval ''[[Peterborough Chronicle]]'' (part of the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'') states:
<blockquote>before the month of August came king Sweyn with his fleet to [[Sandwich, Kent|Sandwich]]. He went very quickly about [[Kingdom of East Anglia|East Anglia]] into the [[Humber]]'s mouth, and so upward along the [[River Trent|Trent]] till he came to [[Gainsborough, Lincolnshire|Gainsborough]]. [[Earl]] [[Uhtred the Bold|Uchtred]] and all [[Northumbria]] quickly bowed to him, as did all the people of the [[Kingdom of Lindsey]], then the people of the [[Five Boroughs of the Danelaw|Five Boroughs]]. He was given hostages from each [[shire]]. When he understood that all the people had submitted to him, he bade that his force should be provisioned and horsed; he went south with the main part of the invasion force, while some of the invasion force, as well as the hostages, were with his son Cnut. After he came over [[Watling Street]], they went to [[Oxford]], and the town-dwellers soon bowed to him, and gave hostages. From there they went to [[Winchester]], and the people did the same, then eastward to [[London]].<ref name="asc">[http://mcllibrary.org/Anglo/ The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060421183735/http://mcllibrary.org/Anglo/ |date=21 April 2006 }}. Everyman Press: London, 1912. Translation by James Ingram (London, 1823) and [[J. A. Giles]] (London, 1847). Medieval and Classical Literature Library Release #17. Retrieved 12 October 2006.</ref>
</blockquote>

But the Londoners put up a strong resistance, because King Æthelred and [[Thorkell the Tall]], a Viking leader who had defected to Æthelred, personally held their ground against him in London itself. Sweyn then went west to [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]], where the western thanes submitted to him and gave hostages. The Londoners then followed suit, fearing Sweyn's revenge if they resisted any longer. King Æthelred sent his sons [[Edward the Confessor|Edward]] and [[Alfred Aetheling|Alfred]] to Normandy, and himself spent Christmas on the [[Isle of Wight]], and then followed them into exile.<ref name="asc"/>

Based in [[Gainsborough, Lincolnshire]], Sweyn began to organise his vast new kingdom, but he died there on 3 February 1014,<ref name="Sawyer2004"/><ref name="Howard2">{{Cite book|last=Howard|first=Ian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzXp1yYjq94C|title=Swein Forkbeard's Invasions and the Danish Conquest of England, 991–1017|publisher=Boydell Press|year=2003|isbn=0851159281|location=Woodbridge|pages=126|access-date=25 October 2015|archive-date=14 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414015622/https://books.google.com/books?id=jzXp1yYjq94C|url-status=live}}</ref> having ruled England for only five weeks. Sweyn's cause of death is unknown.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=25 December 2013 |title=Sweyn Forkbeard: England's forgotten Viking king |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-lincolnshire-25341754 |access-date=2 November 2022 |archive-date=20 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210820110622/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-lincolnshire-25341754 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some theorise that he was killed, whereas other sources say he died after falling off a horse.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Death of Svein Forkbeard {{!}} History Today |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/death-svein-forkbeard |access-date=2 November 2022 |website=www.historytoday.com |archive-date=29 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929040853/https://www.historytoday.com/archive/death-svein-forkbeard |url-status=live }}</ref> His embalmed body was returned to Denmark for burial in the church he had built. Tradition locates this church in [[Roskilde]],<ref name="Blackwell">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=Swein Forkbeard |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |last=Keynes |first=Simon |page=437 |isbn=0631155651 |editor1=Lapidge, Michael |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Scragg, Donald |place=London}}</ref> but it is more plausible that it was actually located in [[Lund]] in Scania (now part of Sweden).<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 February 2014 |title=Sweyn Forkbeard |url=http://www.medievalhistories.com/sweyn-forkbeard/ |access-date=9 March 2017 |website=Medieval Histories |archive-date=31 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170531125050/http://www.medievalhistories.com/sweyn-forkbeard/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Aftermath===
Sweyn's elder son, [[Harald II of Denmark|Harald II]], succeeded him as King of Denmark, while his younger son, [[Cnut the Great|Cnut]], was proclaimed King of England by the people of the Danelaw. However, the English nobility sent for Æthelred, who upon his return from exile in Normandy in early 1014 managed to drive Cnut out of England. Cnut soon returned and became king of all England in 1016, following the deaths of Æthelred and his son [[Edmund Ironside]]; he succeeded his brother as King of Denmark in 1019 and eventually also ruled Norway, parts of Sweden, [[Pomerania]] and [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]].

Cnut and his sons, [[Harold Harefoot]] and [[Harthacnut]], ruled England over a combined 26-year period (1016–1042). After Harthacnut's death, the English throne reverted to the House of Wessex under Æthelred's younger son [[Edward the Confessor]] (reigned 1042–1066).

Sweyn's daughter, [[Estrid Svendsdatter]], was the mother of King [[Sweyn II of Denmark]]. Her descendants continue to [[List of Danish monarchs|reign in Denmark]] to this day.