Editing Testing effect (section)

== History ==
Before much experimental evidence had been collected, the utility of testing was already evident to some perceptive observers including [[Francis Bacon]] who discussed it as a learning strategy as early as 1620.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bacon|first=Francis|title=The New Organon|publisher=CAMBRIDGE TEXTS IN THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY|year=2000|isbn=0-511-01154-7|editor=Jardine|location=[Place of publication not identified]|pages=143|oclc=|editor2=Scott}}</ref>  <blockquote>
''"Hence if you read a piece of text through twenty times, you will not learn it by heart so easily as if you read it ten times while attempting to recite it from time to time and consulting the text when your memory fails."''  </blockquote>
Towards the end of the 17th Century, [[John Locke]] made a similar observation regarding the importance of repeated retrieval for retention in his 1689 book "[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]". <blockquote>
''"But concerning the ideas themselves, it is easy to remark, that those that are oftenest refreshed (amongst which are those that are conveyed into the mind by more ways than one) by a frequent return of the objects or actions that produce them, fix themselves best in the memory, and remain clearest and longest there."''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Locke |first=John |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/10615/10615-h/10615-h.htm#chap2.10 |title=An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding. |publisher=Project Gutenberg |year=1690 |chapter=}}</ref> </blockquote>
Towards the end of the 19th century, Harvard psychologist [[William James]] described the testing effect in the following section of his 1890 book "[[The Principles of Psychology]]" <blockquote>''"A curious peculiarity of our memory is that things are impressed better by active than by passive repetition. I mean that in learning (by heart, for example), when we almost know the piece, it pays better to wait and recollect by an effort from within, than to look at the book again. If we recover the words in the former way, we shall probably know them the next time; if in the latter way, we shall very likely need the book once more."'' <ref>{{Cite book|last=James|first=William|title=The Principles of Psychology Vol 1|publisher=Holt|year=1890|location=New York|pages=Chapter 16 pg 686}}</ref></blockquote>The first documented empirical studies on the testing effect were published in 1909 by Edwina E. Abbott <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Abbott|first1=Edwina|date=1909|title=On the analysis of the factors of recall in the learning process|url=https://insights.ovid.com/psychological-monographs-general-applied/pmga/1909/11/010/analysis-factor-recall-learning-process/5/00006828|journal=Psychological Monographs: General and Applied|volume=11|issue=1|pages=159–177|doi=10.1037/h0093018|via=Ovid}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Larsen|first1=Douglas P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KW2rAAAAQBAJ&q=Test-enhanced+learning&pg=PA443|title=Test-enhanced learning|last2=Butler|first2=Andrew C.|date=2013|journal=In Oxford Textbook of Medical Education|isbn=9780199652679|editor-last=Walsh, K.|pages=443–452}}</ref> which was followed up by research into the transfer and retrieval of prior learning.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Experiments as the relative efficiency of men and women in memory & reasoning.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1926-03355-001|access-date=2021-12-06|website=psycnet.apa.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Köhler|first=Wolfgang|date=1943|title=Review of The Psychology of Human Learning; An Introduction|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1417396|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=56|issue=3|pages=455–460|doi=10.2307/1417396|jstor=1417396|issn=0002-9556|url-access=subscription}}</ref> In his 1932 book ''Psychology of Study'', [[Cecil Alec Mace|C. A. Mace]] said: <blockquote>''"On the matter of sheer repetitive drill there is another principle of the highest importance: Active repetition is very much more effective than passive repetition. ... there are two ways of introducing further repetitions. We may re-read this list: this is passive repetition. We may recall it to mind without reference to the text before forgetting has begun: this is active repetition. It has been found that when acts of reading and acts of recall alternate, i.e., when every reading is followed by an attempt to recall the items, the efficiency of learning and retention is enormously enhanced."'' <ref>{{cite book|last1=Mace|first1=C. A.|title=The Psychology of Study|date=1932|publisher=R.M. McBride & Co.|location=New York|page=39}}</ref> </blockquote>Studies in retrieval practice started in 1987 by John. L Richards, who published his findings in a newspaper in New York. {{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} Much of the confusion around early studies could have been due to constrained approaches not accounting for context.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last1=Barnett|first1=Susan M.|last2=Ceci|first2=Stephen J.|date=2002|title=When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12081085/|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=128|issue=4|pages=612–637|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612|issn=0033-2909|pmid=12081085}}</ref> In more recent research with contributions from [[Hal Pashler]], [[Henry L. Roediger III|Henry Roediger]] and many others, testing knowledge can produce better learning,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Alan S.|date=1976|title=Review of Information Processing and Cognition: The Loyola Symposium|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1421430|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=89|issue=2|pages=357–361|doi=10.2307/1421430|jstor=1421430|issn=0002-9556|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{cite journal|last1=Carrier|first1=M.|last2=Pashler|first2=H.|date=1992|title=The influence of retrieval on retention|journal=Memory & Cognition|volume=20|issue=6|pages=632–642|doi=10.3758/bf03202713|pmid=1435266|doi-access=free|s2cid=15893469}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Izawa|first=Chizuko|date=1971-05-01|title=The test trial potentiating model|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-2496%2871%2990012-5|journal=Journal of Mathematical Psychology|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=200–224|doi=10.1016/0022-2496(71)90012-5|issn=0022-2496|url-access=subscription}}</ref> transfer,<ref name=":6">{{cite journal|last1=McDaniel|first1=M. A.|last2=Roediger|first2=H. L.|last3=McDermott|first3=K. B.|year=2007|title=Generalizing test-enhanced learning from the laboratory to the classroom|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|volume=14|issue=2|pages=200–206|doi=10.3758/bf03194052|pmid=17694901|doi-access=free}}</ref> and retrieval <ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Roediger|first1=Henry L.|last2=Karpicke|first2=Jeffrey D.|date=September 2006|title=The Power of Testing Memory: Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=181–210|doi=10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x|pmid=26151629|s2cid=2184171|issn=1745-6916|url-access=subscription}}</ref> results when compared to other forms of study <ref name=":10" /> that often use recognition <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kanak|first1=N. Jack|last2=Neuner|first2=Sharon D.|date=1970|title=Associative symmetry and item {{sic|nolink=y|reason=error in source|availablity}} as a function of five methods of paired-associate acquisition.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/h0029975|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|language=en|volume=86|issue=2|pages=288–295|doi=10.1037/h0029975|issn=0022-1015|url-access=subscription}}</ref> like re-reading <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Karpicke|first1=Jeffrey D.|last2=Butler|first2=Andrew C.|last3=Roediger|first3=Henry L.|date=2009|title=Metacognitive strategies in student learning: do students practise retrieval when they study on their own?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19358016/|journal=Memory (Hove, England)|volume=17|issue=4|pages=471–479|doi=10.1080/09658210802647009|issn=1464-0686|pmid=19358016|s2cid=36234279}}</ref> or highlighting.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=Sarah E.|date=1991-12-01|title=The cognitive functions of underlining as a study technique|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/19388079209558078|journal=Reading Research and Instruction|volume=31|issue=2|pages=49–56|doi=10.1080/19388079209558078|issn=0886-0246|url-access=subscription}}</ref>