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==Predecessors== {{History of the Church of England}} ===Ten Articles (1536)=== The [[Church of England]]'s break with Rome inaugurated a period of doctrinal confusion and controversy as both conservative and reforming clergy attempted to shape the church's direction, the former as "[[Catholicism]] without the [[Pope]]" and the latter as [[Protestant]]. In an attempt "to establish Christian quietness and unity", the Ten Articles were adopted by clerical [[Convocations of Canterbury and York|Convocation]] in July 1536 as the English Church's first post-papal doctrinal statement.{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 238}} The Ten Articles were crafted as a rushed interim compromise between conservatives and reformers. Historians have variously described it as a victory for [[Lutheranism]] and a success for Catholic resistance.{{Sfn| Haigh | 1993 | p = 128}} Its provisions have also been described as "confusing".{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 239}} The first five articles dealt with doctrines that were "commanded expressly by God, and are necessary to our [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]]", while the last five articles dealt with "laudable ceremonies used in the Church".{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 238}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=161}} This division reflects how the Articles originated from two different discussions earlier in the year. The first five articles were based on the Wittenberg Articles negotiated between English ambassadors [[Edward Foxe]], [[Nicholas Heath]] and [[Robert Barnes (martyr)|Robert Barnes]] and German Lutheran theologians, including [[Martin Luther]] and [[Philip Melanchthon]]. This doctrinal statement was itself based on the [[Augsburg Confession]] of 1530.{{Sfn | "Wittenberg Articles"}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=161}} The five principal doctrines were the [[Bible]] and [[ecumenical creeds]], [[baptism]], [[penance]], the [[Eucharist]] and [[Justification (theology)|justification]].{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 239}} The core doctrine in the Ten Articles was [[justification by faith]].{{Sfn| Haigh | 1993 | p = 129}} Justification β which was defined as [[Forgiveness|remission]] of [[sin]] and accepting into God's favour β was through "the only mercy and [[Grace in Christianity|grace]] of the [[God the Father|Father]], promised freely unto us for his Sonβs sake [[Jesus Christ]], and the merits of his [[Blood of Christ|blood]] and [[Passion of Jesus|passion]]".{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=161}} [[Good works]] would follow, not precede, justification. However, the Lutheran influence was diluted with qualifications. Justification was attained "by [[contrition]] and [[Faith in Christianity|faith]] joined with [[Charity (virtue)|charity]]".{{Sfn| Haigh | 1993 | p = 129}} In other words, good works were "necessarily required to the attaining of everlasting life".{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 239}} To the disappointment of conservatives, only three of the traditional seven [[sacrament]]s were even mentioned (baptism, the Eucharist and penance).{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=161}} The Articles affirm the [[real presence of Christ in the Eucharist]], stating that "under the form and figure of bread and wine ... is verily, substantially and really contained the very self-same body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ".{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 239}} This definition was acceptable to those who held to [[transubstantiation]] or [[sacramental union]], but it clearly condemned [[sacramentarianism]]. More controversially for the reformers, the Articles maintained penance as a sacrament and the [[priest]]'s authority to grant divine [[absolution]] in [[Confession (religion)|confession]].{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 239}} Articles six to ten focused on secondary issues. Significantly, [[purgatory]], which had been a central concern of medieval religion, was placed in the non-essential articles. On the question of its existence, the Ten Articles were ambiguous. They stated, "the place where [departed souls] be, the name thereof, and kind of pains there" was "uncertain by scripture". [[Prayer for the dead]] and [[Requiem|masses for the dead]] were permitted as arguably relieving the pain of departed souls in purgatory.{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 240}} The Articles also defended the use of a number of Catholic rituals and practices opposed by Protestants, such as kissing the cross on [[Good Friday]], while mildly criticising popular abuses and excesses. The use of [[Religious images in Christian theology|religious images]] was permitted but people were to be taught not to kneel before them or make [[Votive offering|offerings]] to them. Prayer to [[Mary, mother of Jesus]], and all the other [[saint]]s was permitted as long as [[superstition]] was avoided.{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | pp = 238β239}} In summary, the Ten Articles asserted:<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.reformationhenryviii.com/1536-ten-articles.html | title = Ten Articles 1536 | website = reformationhenryviii.com | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180803183730/http://www.reformationhenryviii.com/1536-ten-articles.html | archive-date = 3 August 2018 | url-status = live | access-date = 3 August 2018 }}</ref> # The Bible and the three [[ecumenical creeds]] are the basis and summary of true Christian faith. # Baptism imparts [[Forgiveness|remission of sins]] and [[Regeneration (theology)|regeneration]] and is necessary for salvation, even in the case of infants. It condemns the opinions of [[Anabaptist]]s and [[Pelagianism|Pelagians]] as [[heresy]]. # The sacrament of [[penance]], with confession and absolution, is necessary to salvation. # That the body and blood of Christ are [[Real Presence|really present]] in the Eucharist. # Justification is by faith, but good works are necessary. # Images can be used as representations of virtue and good example and also to remind people of their sins but are not objects of worship. # Saints are to be honoured as examples of life and as furthering the prayers of the faithful. # [[Intercession of saints|Praying to saints]] is permitted, and holy days should be observed. # The observance of various rites and ceremonies, such as clerical [[vestment]]s, sprinkling of [[holy water]], bearing of candles on [[Candlemas]], giving of ashes on [[Ash Wednesday]], is good and laudable. However, none of these has power to forgive sin. # It is a good and charitable deed to pray for the dead. However, the doctrine of purgatory is biblically uncertain. Abuses related to purgatory, such as the claim that papal [[indulgence]]s or masses for the dead offered at certain localities (such as the ''[[Santa Maria Scala Coeli|scala coeli]]'' mass) can deliver immediately from purgatory, are to be rejected. === ''Bishops' Book'' (1537) === [[Image:Thomas-Cranmer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Thomas Cranmer]] headed the committee that authored the ''Bishop's Book''.]] The failure of the Ten Articles to settle doctrinal controversy led [[Thomas Cromwell]], the King's [[vicegerent]] in spirituals, to convene a national [[synod]] of bishops and high-ranking clergy for further theological discussion in February 1537.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|pp=185β186}} This synod produced a book called ''The Institution of the Christian Man'' (popularly called ''The Bishops' Book''), the word ''institution'' being synonymous with ''instruction''.{{Sfn| Blunt | 1878 | p = 444}} ''The Bishops' Book'' preserved the semi-Lutheranism of the Ten Articles, and the articles on justification, purgatory, and the sacraments of baptism, the Eucharist and penance were incorporated unchanged into the new book.{{Sfn | Marshall | 2017 | p = 255}}<ref>''The Institution of A Christen Man'' (Thomas Berthelet, cum privilegio, London 1537), full page views at [https://archive.org/details/institutionofchr00chur/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive].</ref> When the synod met, conservatives were still angry that four of the traditional seven sacraments ([[confirmation]], marriage, [[holy orders]] and [[extreme unction]]) had been excluded from the Ten Articles. [[John Stokesley]] argued for all seven, while [[Thomas Cranmer]] only acknowledged baptism and the Eucharist. The others divided along party lines. The conservatives were at a disadvantage because they found it necessary to appeal to [[sacred tradition]], which violated Cromwell's instructions that all arguments refer to scripture.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|pp=187β188}} In the end, the missing sacraments were restored but placed in a separate section to emphasize "a difference in dignity and necessity." Only baptism, the Eucharist and penance were "instituted of Christ, to be as certain instruments or remedies necessary for our salvation".{{Sfn | Marshall | 2017 | p = 254}} Confirmation was declared to have been introduced by the [[early Church]] in imitation of what they had read about the [[Christian laying on of hands|practice of the Apostles]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=189}} The ''Bishops' Book'' also included expositions on the creed, the [[Ten Commandments]], the [[Lord's Prayer]] and [[Hail Mary]].{{Sfn| Blunt | 1878 | p = 446}} These were greatly influenced by [[William Marshall (translator)|William Marshall]]'s primer (an English-language [[book of hours]]) of 1535, which itself was influenced by Luther's writings.{{Sfn | Marshall | 2017 | p = 256}} Following Marshall, ''The Bishops' Book'' rejected the traditional Catholic numbering of the Ten Commandments, in which the [[Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image|prohibition on making and worshiping graven images]] was part of the first commandment, "[[Thou shalt have no other gods before me]]". In agreement with the [[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Huldrych Zwingli]]'s church at Zurich, the authors of the ''Bishops' Book'' adopted the Jewish tradition of separating these commandments. While allowing images of Christ and the saints, the exposition on the second commandment taught against representations of [[God the Father]] and criticised those who "be more ready with their substance to deck dead images gorgeously and gloriously, than with the same to help poor Christian people, the quick and lively [[Image of God|images of God]]".{{Sfn | Marshall | 2017 | p = 256}} Such teachings encouraged [[iconoclasm]], which would become a feature of the English Reformation.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=192}} The list of the 46 divines as they appear in the ''Bishop's Book'' included all of the [[bishop]]s, eight [[archdeacon]]s and 17 other [[Doctor of Divinity|Doctors of Divinity]], some of whom were later involved with translating the [[Great Bible|Bible]] and compiling the ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'':{{Sfn| Blunt | 1878 | p = 445}} [[Thomas Cranmer]] β [[Edward Lee, Archbishop of York|Edward Lee]] β [[John Stokesley]] β [[Cuthbert Tunstall]] β [[Stephen Gardiner]] β [[Robert Aldrich, Bishop of Carlisle|Robert Aldrich]] β [[John Voysey]] β [[John Longland]] β [[John Clerk, Bishop of Bath and Wells|John Clerk]] β [[Rowland Lee (bishop)|Rowland Lee]] β [[Thomas Goodrich]] β [[Nicholas Shaxton]] β [[John Bird (Bishop)|John Bird]] β [[Edward Foxe]] β [[Hugh Latimer]] β [[John Hilsey]] β [[Richard Sampson]] β [[William Repps]] β [[William Barlowe]] β [[Robert Partew]] β [[Robert Holgate]] β [[Richard Wolman]] β [[William Knight (royal servant)|William Knight]] β [[John Bell, Bishop of Worcester|John Bell]] β [[Edmund Bonner|Edmond Bonner]] β [[William Skip]] β [[Nicholas Heath]] β [[Cuthbert Marshal]] β [[Richard Curren]] β [[William Cliffe]] β [[William Downes (divine)|William Downes]] β [[Robert Oking]] β [[Ralph Bradford]] β [[Richard Smyth (Regius Professor)|Richard Smyth]] β [[Simon Matthew]] β [[John Pryn]] β [[William Buckmaster]] β [[William May (theologian)|William May]] β [[Nicholas Wotton]] β [[Richard Cox (bishop)|Richard Cox]] β [[John Edmunds (academic)|John Edmunds]] β [[Thomas Robertson (divine)|Thomas Robertson]] β [[John Baker (English statesman)|John Baker]] β [[Thomas Barett]] β [[John Hase]] β [[John Tyson (divine)|John Tyson]] In August 1537, it was presented to the King who ordered that parts should be read from the pulpit every Sunday and feast day. Nevertheless, the King was not entirely satisfied and took it upon himself to make a revised ''Bishops' Book'', which, among other proposed changes,<ref>{{Harvnb| Marshall | 2017 | pp = 257β258}}: "Most notoriously, [Henry VIII] took it upon himself to improve the wording of both the Ten Commandments and the Lordβs Prayer. He wanted the final petition of the latter to read 'and suffer us not to be led into temptation' (rather than 'lead us not into temptation'). And he amended the First Commandment ('Thou shalt have none other gods but me') to read 'Thou shalt not have nor repute any other God, or gods, but me Jesu Christ.'"</ref> weakened the original's emphasis on justification by faith. This revised version was never published.{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 259}} Because the ''Bishops' Book'' was never authorised by the Crown or Convocation, the Ten Articles remained the official doctrinal standard of the Church of England.{{Sfn|Davie|2013|p=17}} ===Six Articles (1539)=== [[File:The Act of Six Articles 1539.jpg|thumb|right|One of the final drafts of the Six articles (1539), amended in King Henry VIII's own hand]] Fearful of diplomatic isolation and a Catholic alliance, Henry VIII continued his outreach to the Lutheran [[Schmalkaldic League]]. In May 1538, three Lutheran theologians from Germany β Franz Burchard, vice-chancellor of Saxony; Georg von Boineburg, doctor of law; and [[Friedrich Myconius]], [[Superintendent (ecclesiastical)|superintendent]] of the church in [[Gotha]] β arrived in London and held conferences with English bishops and clergy at the archbishop's [[Lambeth Palace]] through September.<ref>{{Harvnb|MacCulloch|1996|pp=215β216}}: The English delegation included Cranmer, as chairman, and Nicholas Heath for the Protestant side. The conservatives included Bishops Sampson and Stokesley along with [[George Day (bishop)|George Day]] and [[Nicholas Wilson (parson)|Nicholas Wilson]]. Bishop Tunstall was involved in negotiations as well.</ref> The Germans presented, as a basis of agreement, a number of articles based on the Lutheran Confession of Augsburg. Bishops [[Cuthbert Tunstall|Tunstall]], [[John Stokesley|Stokesley]] and others were not won over by these Protestant arguments and did everything they could to avoid agreement. They were willing to separate from Rome, but their plan was to unite with the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Church]] and not with the Protestants on the continent.{{sfn|d'AubignΓ©|1972|p=}} The bishops also refused to eliminate what the Germans considered abuses (e.g. private masses for the dead, compulsory [[clerical celibacy]], and withholding [[communion wine]] from the [[laity]]) allowed by the English Church.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=219}} Stokesley considered these customs to be essential because the Greek Church practised them.{{sfn|d'AubignΓ©|1972|p=}} As the King was unwilling to break with these practices, the Germans had all left England by 1 October.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=221}} Meanwhile, England was in religious turmoil. Impatient Protestants took it upon themselves to further reform β some priests said mass in English rather than Latin and married without authorisation (Archbishop Cranmer was himself secretly married). Protestants themselves were divided between establishment reformers who held Lutheran beliefs upholding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist and radicals who held [[Anabaptist]] and [[Sacramentarian]] views denying real presence.{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | pp = 269β270}} In May 1539, a new Parliament met, and [[Lord Chancellor]] [[Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden|Audley]] told the [[House of Lords]] that the King desired religious uniformity. A committee of four conservative and four reformist bishops was appointed to examine and determine doctrine.<ref>{{Harvnb| Marshall | 2017 | p = 273}}: The committee was headed by Cromwell, the vicegerent, and the bishops included Cranmer and his Protestant allies β Latimer, Goodrich, Salcot β and their traditionalist counterparts Lee, Tunstall, Clerk and Robert Aldrich of Carlisle.</ref> On 16 May, the [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk|Duke of Norfolk]] noted that the committee had not agreed on anything and proposed that the Lords examine six controversial doctrinal questions that became the basis of the Six Articles: #whether the Eucharist could be the true body of Christ without transubstantiation, #whether it needed to be given to the laity [[Communion under both kinds|under both kinds]], #whether [[Religious vows|vows]] of [[chastity]] needed to be observed as part of divine law, #whether clerical celibacy should be compulsory, #whether [[Votive Mass|private (votive) masses]] were required (legitimate) by divine law, #whether auricular [[Confession (religion)|confession]] (that is, confession to a priest) was necessary as part of divine law.{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 275}}{{sfn|Ridley|2013|p=180}} {{Infobox UK legislation | short_title = Statute of the Six Articles | type = Act | parliament = Parliament of England | long_title = An Act for abolishing of Diversity of Opinions of certain Articles concerning Christian Religion. | year = 1539 | citation = [[31 Hen. 8]]. c. 14 | territorial_extent = [[England and Wales]] | royal_assent = 28 June 1539 | commencement = 28 April 1539{{efn|Start of session.}} | repeal_date = 4 November 1547 | amends = | replaces = [[Suppression of Heresy Act 1414]] | amendments = | repealing_legislation = [[Treason Act 1547]] | related_legislation = | status = Repealed | original_text = https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000017915533&view=1up&seq=510 }} Over the next month, these questions were argued in Parliament and Convocation with the active participation of the King. The final product was an affirmation of traditional teachings on all but the sixth question. Communion in one kind, compulsory clerical celibacy, vows of chastity and votive masses were a legitimate form.{{Sfn| Haigh | 1993 | p = 153}} Protestants achieved a minor victory on auricular confession, which was declared "expedient and necessary to be retained" but not required by divine law. In addition, although the real presence was affirmed in traditional terminology, the word ''transubstantiation'' itself did not appear in the final version.{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 275}}<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Documents/act_six_articles.htm | title = The Act of the Six Articles | date = 1539 | website = tudorplace.com.ar | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180912225855/http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Documents/act_six_articles.htm | archive-date = 2018-09-12 | url-status = live | access-date = 1 December 2018}}. The article on the Eucharist defines the real presence in these terms: "First, that in the most blessed Sacrament of the Altar, by the strength and efficacy of Christ's mighty word, it being spoken by the priest, is present really, under the form of bread and wine, the natural body and blood of Our Saviour Jesu Christ, conceived of the Virgin Mary, and that after the consecration there remaineth no substance of bread and wine, nor any other substance but the substance of Christ, God and man".</ref> The Act of Six Articles became law in June 1539, which, unlike the Ten Articles, gave the Six Articles statutory authority. Harsh penalties were attached to violations of the Articles. Denial of transubstantiation was punished by burning without an opportunity to [[recant]]. Denial of any of the other articles was punished by hanging or life imprisonment.{{Sfn| Haigh | 1993 | p = 153}} Married priests had until 12 July to put away their wives, which was likely a concession granted to give Archbishop Cranmer time to move his wife and children outside of England.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=249}} After the act's passage, bishops Latimer and Shaxton, outspoken opponents of the measure, were forced to resign their dioceses.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=251}} The Act of Six Articles was repealed by the [[Treason Act 1547]] ([[1 Edw. 6]]. c. 12) during the reign of Henry's son, [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]].{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 312}} ===''King's Book'' (1543)=== When Parliament re-convened in April 1540, a committee was formed to revise the ''Bishops' Book'', which Henry VIII had never liked. The committee's membership included both traditionalists and reformers, but the former held the majority.{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 279}} Convocation began discussing the revised text in April 1543. The ''King's Book'', or ''The Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for Any Christian Man'' to use its formal title,<ref>''The Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for Any Christen Man'' (Thomas Barthelet, King's Printer, London 1543), full page views at [https://archive.org/details/necessarydoctrin00chur/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive].</ref> was more traditional than the 1537 version and incorporated many of the King's own revisions. It was approved by a [[Magnum Concilium|special meeting of the nobility]] on 6 May and differed from the ''Bishop's Book'' in having been issued under the King's authority. It was also statutorily enforced by the [[Act for the Advancement of True Religion]].{{Sfn| Haigh | 1993 | pp = 160β161}} Because of its royal authorisation, the ''King's Book'' officially replaced the Ten Articles as the official doctrinal statement of the Church of England.{{Sfn|Davie|2013|p=18}} Significantly, the doctrine of justification by faith ''alone'' was totally rejected. Cranmer tried to save the doctrine by arguing that while true faith was accompanied by good works (in other words, faith was not ''alone'') it was only faith that justified. However, Henry would not be persuaded, and the text was amended to read that faith justified "neither only nor alone".{{Sfn| Haigh | 1993 | p = 160}} It also stated that each person had free will to be "a worker ... in the attaining of his own justification".{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 288}} The ''King's Book'' also endorsed traditional views of the mass, transubstantiation, confession, and Church ceremonies.{{Sfn| Haigh | 1993 | p = 160}} The traditional seven sacraments were all included without any distinction in importance made between them. It was taught that the second commandment did not forbid images but only "godly honour" being given to them. Looking at images of Christ and the saints "provoked, kindled and stirred to yield thanks to Our Lord".{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | pp = 288β289}} The one area in which the ''King's Book'' moved away from traditional teaching was on prayer for the dead and purgatory. It taught that no one could know whether prayers or masses for the dead benefited an individual soul, and it was better to offer prayers for "the universal congregation of Christian people, quick and dead". People were encouraged to "abstain from the name of purgatory, and no more dispute or reason thereof".{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 289}} Presumably, the hostility towards purgatory derived from its connection to papal authority. The King's own behavior sent mixed signals. In 1540, he allowed offerings for the souls of deceased [[Knights of the Garter]] to be spent on works of charity instead of masses. At the same time, however, he required the new cathedral foundations to pray for the soul of [[Jane Seymour|Queen Jane]]. Perhaps because of the uncertainty surrounding this doctrine, bequests in wills for [[Chantry|chantries]], [[Obiit|obits]] and masses fell by half what they had been in the 1520s.{{Sfn| Marshall | 2017 | p = 289}} ===Forty-two Articles (1553)=== {{main|Forty-two Articles}} Henry VIII was succeeded by his son, [[Edward VI]], in 1547. During Edward's reign, the Church of England adopted a stronger Protestant identity. The [[Book of Common Prayer (1549)|''Book of Common Prayer'' of 1549]] authorised a reformed liturgy, and the [[Book of Common Prayer (1552)|1552 ''Book of Common Prayer'']] was even more explicitly Protestant. To make the English Church fully Protestant, Cranmer also envisioned a [[Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum|reform of canon law]] and the creation of a concise doctrinal statement, which would become the Forty-two Articles.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1996|p=500}} Work on a doctrinal statement was delayed by Cranmer's efforts to forge a doctrinal consensus among the various Protestant churches to counter the work of the Catholic [[Council of Trent]]. When this proved impossible, Cranmer turned his attention to defining what the Church of England believed.{{Sfn|Heal|2003|p=310}} In late 1552 the first edition of the confession was produced in the form of the Forty-Five Articles that Cranmer submitted for comment and revision, and which were approved by Parliament in June of 1553 by which time their number had been reduced to the [[Forty-two Articles]] which were drafted by Cranmer and a small group of fellow Protestants. The title page claimed that the articles were approved by Convocation when in reality they were never discussed or adopted by the clerical body. They were also never approved by Parliament.{{Sfn | Marshall | 2017 | p = 353}} The articles were issued by Royal Mandate on 19 June 1553. All clergy, schoolmasters and members of the universities were required to subscribe to them.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|1997|p=625}} The theology of the articles has been described by some as a "restrained" [[Calvinism]].{{Sfn| Haigh | 1993 | p = 181}}{{sfn|Bray|2004|p=284}} Others point to a much stronger Lutheran influence.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hall|first=Basil|date=1993b|editor-last1=Ayris|editor-first1=Paul |editor-last2=Selwyn|editor-first2=David|title=Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar|publisher=The Boydell Press|chapter=Cranmer, the Eucharist and the Foreign Divines in the Reign of Edward VI|isbn=0-85115-549-9}}</ref>
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