Editing Torvosaurus (section)

== Discovery ==
[[File:Torvosaurus tanneri.JPG|thumb|left|Reconstructed ''T. tanneri'' skull, Museo Capellini of [[Bologna]], Italy]]



Fossilized remains of ''Torvosaurus'' have been found in [[North America]], [[Portugal]], [[Germany]], and possibly in [[England]], [[Spain]], [[Tanzania]], and [[Uruguay]]. The first discovered remains referable to ''Torvosaurus'' were discovered in 1899 by [[Elmer Riggs]] in the "Freeze-out Hills" of southeastern [[Wyoming]], {{convert|11|mi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} northwest of [[Medicine Bow, Wyoming|Medicine Bow]]. The material consisted of part of the left foot and right hand and they were taken to the [[Field Museum of Natural History]] in [[Chicago]], where they were stored until being re-discovered around 2010. The specimen was assigned to ''Torvosaurus tanneri'' after being described in 2014.<ref name=":4">Hanson, Michael; Makovicky, Peter J. "A new specimen of ''Torvosaurus tanneri'' originally collected by [[Elmer Riggs]]". ''Historical Biology, volume 26, issue 6 (2014).'' Pages 775-784. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08912963.2013.853056?scroll=top&needAccess=true&journalCode=ghbi20 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184815/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08912963.2013.853056?scroll=top&needAccess=true&journalCode=ghbi20 |date=July 9, 2021 }}.</ref>

More remains of a large [[theropod]] that is now believed to have been ''Torvosaurus'' were discovered in the [[Tendaguru Formation]] of [[Tanzania]] and was named "''[[Megalosaurus]]''" ''ingens'' by [[Werner Janensch]] in 1920, based on the specimen MB R 1050, a {{convert|12|cm|in|sp=us|adj=on}} long tooth from [[German East Africa]] (now Tanzania).<ref name="janensch1920">{{cite journal |last=Janensch |first=W. |year=1920 |title=Ueber ''Elaphrosaurus bambergi'' und die Megalosaurier aus den Tendaguru Schichten Deutsch-Ostafrikas |journal=Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin |pages=225–235}}</ref> It was eventually reclassified as a probable member of [[Carcharodontosauridae]] before being reclassified as a probable member of the ''Torvosaurus'' genus in 2020.<ref name="Soto2020">{{cite journal |last1=Soto |first1=Matías |last2=Toriño |first2=Pablo |last3=Perea |first3=Daniel |title=A large sized megalosaurid (Theropoda, Tetanurae) from the late Jurassic of Uruguay and Tanzania |journal=Journal of South American Earth Sciences |date=2020 |volume=98 |page=102458 |doi=10.1016/j.jsames.2019.102458|bibcode=2020JSAES..9802458S |s2cid=213672502 }}</ref> Although it was only referred to as ''Torvosaurus sp.'', one commentator has noted it could potentially be called ''Torvosaurus ingens''.<ref>{{cite web|title=''Torvosaurus'': The Grizzly Bear of the Jurassic|date=August 8, 2015|url=https://dinosaursandbarbarians.com/2015/08/08/torvosaurus-the-grizzly-bear-of-the-jurassic/|publisher=Dinosaurs and Barbarians|access-date=March 22, 2021|archive-date=July 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728235738/https://dinosaursandbarbarians.com/2015/08/08/torvosaurus-the-grizzly-bear-of-the-jurassic/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |url=https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/6kntxfp449/1|doi = 10.17632/6kntxfp449.1|title = Megalosaurid tooth from Uruguay |website=Mendeley Data |date = September 30, 2019 |last1 = Soto|first1 = Matias| volume=1 }}</ref> Soto ''et al.'' described teeth of a member of the genus ''Torvosaurus'' from the [[Tacuarembó Formation]] of [[Uruguay]]. The authors noted that some of the specimens of “''Megalosaurus” ingens'' figured by [[Werner Janensch]] share the features of the Uruguayan material and stated that the materials from Tanzania and Uruguay may represent the same taxon, due to geographical proximity, but ultimately concluded that, based on only teeth, they do not share any derived characteristics to distinguish them from the described species of the genus, ''T. tanneri'' and ''T. gurneyi''.<ref name="Soto2020" /><ref name="FWTacuarembo">[https://paleobiodb.org/classic/displayStrata?formation=Tacuaremb%F3&group_formation_member=Tacuaremb%F3 Tacuarembó Formation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130164245/https://paleobiodb.org/classic/displayStrata?formation=Tacuaremb%F3&group_formation_member=Tacuaremb%F3 |date=November 30, 2024 }} at [[Fossilworks]].org</ref> However, Rauhut ''et al.'' consider the teeth to be undiagnostic, being coherent in size and shape with a variety of other theropods (including carcharodontosaurids), thus considering their attribution to the genus to be problematic.<ref name=":1" />

In 1971, Vivian Jones of [[Delta, Colorado]], in the Calico Gulch Quarry in [[Moffat County]], discovered a single gigantic thumb claw of a theropod. This was shown to [[James A. Jensen|James Alvin Jensen]], a collector who was working for [[Brigham Young University]]. In an effort to discover comparable fossils, Vivian's husband Daniel Eddie Jones directed Jensen to the [[Dry Mesa Quarry]], where abundant gigantic theropod bones, together with ''[[Supersaurus]]'' remains, proved present in rocks of the [[Morrison Formation]]. From 1972 onward, the site was excavated by Jensen and Kenneth Stadtman. The [[type species]] ''Torvosaurus tanneri'' was named and described in [[1979 in paleontology|1979]] by [[Peter Malcolm Galton]] and Jensen.<ref name="galt79" /> The genus name ''Torvosaurus'' derives from the [[Latin]] word ''torvus'', meaning "savage", and the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''sauros'' (σαυρος), meaning "lizard".<ref name="Liddell 1980">{{cite book | author = [[Henry George Liddell|Liddell, Henry George]] and [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Robert Scott]] | year = 1980 | title = A Greek-English Lexicon | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = United Kingdom | isbn = 0-19-910207-4 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/lexicon00lidd | edition = Abridged }}</ref> The [[specific name (zoology)|specific name]] ''tanneri'' comes from the, first counselor in the [[First Presidency (LDS Church)|First Presidency]] of [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], [[Nathan Eldon Tanner]].
 
In 1985, Jensen could report a considerable amount of additional material, among it being the first skull elements.<ref name="Jensen1985">Jensen, J.A., 1985, "Uncompahgre dinosaur fauna: A preliminary report", ''Great Basin Naturalist'', '''45''': 710–720</ref> The fossils from Colorado were further described by [[Brooks Britt]] in 1991.<ref name="Britt1991">Britt, B., 1991, "[https://geology.byu.edu/0000017c-f2a9-dd9b-a7ff-f2af65580000/geol-stud-vol-37-britt-pdf Theropods of Dry Mesa Quarry (Morrison Formation, Late Jurassic), Colorado, with emphasis on the osteology of ''Torvosaurus tanneri'']", ''Brigham Young University Geology Studies'' '''37''': 1–72</ref> The [[holotype]], BYU 2002, originally consisted of upper and lower arm bones. The [[paratype]]s included some back bones, hip bones, and hand bones.<ref name="galt79" /> When the material described in 1985 is added, the main missing elements are the shoulder girdle and the thighbone.<ref name="Britt1991" /> The original thumb claw, specimen BYUVP 2020, was only provisionally referred, as it had been found in a site {{convert|195|km|mi|sp=us}} away from the Dry Mesa Quarry.<ref name="galt79" /> The holotype and paratypes represented at least three individuals, these being two adults and a juvenile.<ref name="Britt1991" /> In 1991, Britt concluded that there was no proof that the front limbs of the holotype were associated and chose the left humerus as the [[Type (biology)|lectotype]].<ref name="Britt1991" /> Several single bones and teeth found in other American sites have been referred to ''Torvosaurus''.<ref name="Britt1991" />

[[File:Torvosaurus.png|thumb|upright|Maxillae of ''T. gurneyi'' and ''T. tanneri'' compared]]
In 1992, fossils of a large theropod found at [[Como Bluff]] in [[Wyoming]] contained skull, shoulder girdle, pelvic, and rib elements. They were named by [[Robert T. Bakker]] ''et al.'' as the species ''Edmarka rex''. Bakker ''et al'' were impressed with the size of ''Edmarka'', noting that it "would rival ''[[Tyrannosaurus|T. rex]]'' in total length," and viewing this approximate size as "a natural ceiling for dinosaurian meat-eaters."<ref>Bakker, R.T., Siegwarth, J., Kralis, D. & Filla, J., 1992, "''Edmarka rex'', a new, gigantic theropod dinosaur from the middle Morrison Formation, Late Jurassic of the Como Bluff outcrop region", ''Hunteria'', '''2'''(9): 1–24</ref> This was often considered a [[junior synonym]] of ''Torvosaurus'',<ref name="Carrano2012" /> but a detailed analysis has not been carried out yet.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |author=Molina-Pérez, R. |author2=Larramendi, A. |title=Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs: the Theropods |publisher=The Natural History Museum |location=London |date=2019 |isbn=9780565094973}}</ref> The same site has rendered comparable remains for which the ''[[nomen nudum]]'' ''Brontoraptor'' has been used.<ref>Redman, P.D., 1995, ''Paleo Horizons'', Winter Issue</ref><ref name="brontoraptor">Siegwarth, J., Linbeck, R., Bakker, R. and Southwell, B. (1996). Giant carnivorous dinosaurs of the family Megalosauridae. ''Hunteria'' '''3''':1–77.</ref> Most researchers now regard both specimens as belonging to ''Torvosaurus tanneri''.<ref name=gurneyi/> However, ''Edmarka rex'' and ''Brontoraptor'' require reclassification to determine whether or not they actually belong to ''T. tanneri'', as all the specimens described prior to their discovery indicate that they reached their adult size and both incomplete specimens lack detailed osteological descriptions.<ref name="Dalman2014">{{cite journal|last=Dalman|first=S. G.|year=2014|title=New data on small theropod dinosaurs from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of Como Bluff, Wyoming, USA|journal=Volumina Jurassica|volume=7|issue=2|pages=181–196|url=https://publisherspanel.com/api/files/view/36854.pdf|archive-date=September 28, 2022|access-date=June 6, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928224501/https://publisherspanel.com/api/files/view/36854.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2012, a still undescribed, 55% complete specimen was discovered in Colorado in the Skull Creek Quarry, which is an exposure of the Morrison Formation. The specimen, nicknamed "Elvis", included the pelvic, spine, and hind limb bones, a complete, associated backbone, as well as cranial elements. It is the most complete specimen of ''Torvosaurus'' found to date.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Torvosaurus – King of the Real Jurassic World Unearthed|url=https://www.fossilera.com/blog/torvosaurus-king-of-the-real-jurassic-world-unearthed|access-date=March 21, 2021|website=FossilEra|archive-date=July 11, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711211145/https://www.fossilera.com/blog/torvosaurus-king-of-the-real-jurassic-world-unearthed|url-status=live}}</ref> A mounted skeleton of the specimen, with missing parts reconstructed with casts from other ''Torvosaurus'' specimens, is currently on display in the Museum of Natural History & Science in Cincinnati.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Museum of Natural History & Science (MNHS)|url=https://www.cincymuseum.org/sciencemuseum/|access-date=March 21, 2021|website=Cincinnati Museum Center|language=en-US|archive-date=June 10, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610013226/https://www.cincymuseum.org/sciencemuseum/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2000, material from Portugal was referred to a ''Torvosaurus'' sp. by [[Octávio Mateus]] and [[Miguel Telles Antunes]].<ref name="Mateus2000">Mateus, O., & Antunes, M. T. (2000). ''Torvosaurus'' sp.(Dinosauria: Theropoda) in the late Jurassic of Portugal. In I Congresso Ibérico de Paleontologia/XVI Jornadas de la Sociedad Española de Paleontología (pp. 115–117)</ref> In 2006, fossils from the Portuguese [[Lourinhã Formation]] were referred to ''Torvosaurus tanneri''.<ref name=OMetal06>{{cite book |last=Mateus |first=Octávio |author2=Walen, Aart|author3= Antunes, Miguel Telles |year=2006 |chapter=The large theropod fauna of the Lourinha Formation (Portugal) and its similarity to that of the Morrison Formation, with a description of a new species of ''Allosaurus'' |editor=Foster, John R. |editor2=Lucas, Spencer G. |title=Paleontology and Geology of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation |series=New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, '''36''' |publisher=New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science |location=Albuquerque, New Mexico |pages=123–129}}</ref> In 2012, however, [[Matthew Carrano]] ''et al.'' concluded that this material could not be more precisely determined than a ''Torvosaurus'' sp.<ref name=":6" /> In 2013 and 2014, eggs with and without embryos were reported from Portugal and referred to ''Torvosaurus''.<ref name="Auraújo" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ribeiro|first1=Vasco|last2=Mateus|first2=Octávio|last3=Holwerda|first3=Femke|last4=Araújo|first4=Ricardo|last5=Castanhinha|first5=Rui|date=March 4, 2014|title=Two new theropod egg sites from the Late Jurassic Lourinhã Formation, Portugal|journal=Historical Biology|volume=26|issue=2|pages=206–217|doi=10.1080/08912963.2013.807254|bibcode=2014HBio...26..206R |s2cid=55315504|issn=0891-2963}}</ref> The species from Portugal was named ''T. gurneyi'' in honor of [[James Gurney]] in 2014, the creator of the ''[[Dinotopia]]'' series of books. It is the largest named theropod known from Europe, although an isolated anterior caudal vertebra from the [[Vega Formation]] in [[Spain]], which may belong to ''Torvosaurus'' or a closely related taxon, is about 15% larger than the one found on ''T. gurneyi.''<ref name="gurneyi" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rauhut|first1=Oliver W.M.|last2=Piñuela|first2=Laura|last3=Castanera|first3=Diego|last4=García-Ramos|first4=José-Carlos|last5=Sánchez Cela|first5=Irene|date=July 5, 2018|title=The largest European theropod dinosaurs: remains of a gigantic megalosaurid and giant theropod tracks from the Kimmeridgian of Asturias, Spain|journal=PeerJ|language=en|volume=6|pages=e4963|doi=10.7717/peerj.4963|issn=2167-8359|pmc=6035862|pmid=30002951 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It was the morphological distinctiveness of the holotype maxilla ML1100 that led to the naming of the Portuguese species.<ref name="gurneyi" /> In 2017, a set of Portuguese cranial material assigned to ''Torvosaurus'' was described, including a specimen interpreted as belonging to the same individual as the holotype of ''Torvosaurus gurneyi''.<ref name=":0" />

In 2020, Soto ''et al.'' described FC-DPV 2971, a tooth from Uruguay, as belonging to a new unnamed species of ''Torvosaurus''.<ref name="Soto2020" /> They also assigned ''[[Megalosaurus]]''/''[[Ceratosaurus]] ingens'' (specimen MB R 1050) from Tanzania to ''Torvosaurus''.<ref name="Soto2020" /> Also in 2020, a fragmentary maxilla referable to ''Torvosaurus'' was described from the middle [[Callovian]] [[Ornatenton Formation]] of Germany. This is the oldest record of the genus and suggests that megalosaurines originated in Europe, or at least that Europe was a biogeographical turntable for them from the Middle to the early Late Jurassic. Other possible ''Torvosaurus'' instances in Europe include fragmentary remains from the [[Kimmeridge Clay]] of England that possibly belong to the genus.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |author=Oliver W. M. Rauhut |author2=Achim H. Schwermann |author3=Tom R. Hübner |author4=Klaus-Peter Lanser |year=2020 |title=The oldest record of the genus ''Torvosaurus'' (Theropoda: Megalosauridae) from the Callovian Ornatenton Formation of north-western Germany |url=https://www.lwl.org/wmfn-download/Geologie_und_Palaeontologie_in_Westfalen/GuP_Heft_93_14_Seiten.pdf |journal=Geologie und Paläontologie in Westfalen |volume=93 |pages=1–13 |archive-date=July 13, 2021 |access-date=October 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713084347/https://www.lwl.org/wmfn-download/Geologie_und_Palaeontologie_in_Westfalen/GuP_Heft_93_14_Seiten.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> These consist of a tibia (OUMNH J.29886) and a maxilla fragment that were collected separately from each other.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Carrano|first1=Matthew T.|last2=Benson|first2=Roger B. J.|last3=Sampson|first3=Scott D.|date=June 2012|title=The phylogeny of Tetanurae (Dinosauria: Theropoda)|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2011.630927|journal=Journal of Systematic Palaeontology|language=en|volume=10|issue=2|pages=211–300|doi=10.1080/14772019.2011.630927|bibcode=2012JSPal..10..211C|s2cid=85354215|issn=1477-2019|archive-date=July 26, 2021|access-date=November 3, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726035543/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2011.630927|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>