Editing Transatlantic flight (section)

==History==
[[File:Alcockandbrown mail.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Royal Air Force officers, [[John Alcock (RAF officer)|Alcock]] and [[Arthur Whitten Brown|Brown]], taking on mail prior to the first non-stop transatlantic flight in 1919]]
The idea of transatlantic flight came about with the advent of the [[hot air balloon]]. The balloons of the period were inflated with [[coal gas]], a moderate lifting medium compared to [[hydrogen]] or [[helium]], but with enough lift to use the winds that would later be known as the [[Jet Stream]]. In 1859, [[John Wise (balloonist)|John Wise]] built an enormous aerostat named the ''Atlantic'', intending to cross the [[Atlantic]]. The flight lasted less than a day, crash-landing in [[Henderson, New York]]. [[Thaddeus S. C. Lowe]] prepared a massive balloon of {{convert|725000|cuft|m3}} called the ''City of New York'' to take off from [[Philadelphia]] in 1860, but was interrupted by the onset of the [[American Civil War]] in 1861. 

Powered by two [[Rolls-Royce Eagle]] 360&nbsp;hp engines, the [[Vickers Vimy]] flown by British aviators [[Alcock and Brown]] made the first non-stop transatlantic flight in 1919. The first successful transatlantic flight in a balloon was the [[Double Eagle II]] from [[Presque Isle, Maine]], to [[Miserey]], near [[Paris]] in 1978.

===First transatlantic flights===
[[File:Kelly Field - A Successful Practice Flight Over an Aviation Field.jpg|thumb|left|The Curtiss H-2 ''America'' was supposed to make a trans-atlantic flight attempt in 1914 but WW1 broke out. At one point the aircraft had three engines, one on the top wing, to build duration. The plane could not take off fully fueled with three engines.]]
[[File:Martin-Handasyde trans-Atlantic monoplane.jpg|thumb|left|Martin-Handasyde monoplane to have been used by [[Gustav Hamel]] in an east-to-west Atlantic attempt. Hamel disappeared in May 1914 and the large monoplane partially built was never completed.]]
[[File:AC NC4 1 USN.jpg|thumb|right| The U.S. Navy's NC-4, first aircraft to cross the Atlantic though in stages May 1919.]]
In April 1913, the London newspaper [[Daily Mail aviation prizes|''The Daily Mail'' offered a prize of £10,000]]<ref>Nevin, David. "Two Daring Flyers Beat the Atlantic before Lindbergh." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 28: (1) 1993, 105.</ref> (£{{Format price|{{Inflation|UK-GDP|10000|1919|r=-3}}}} in {{Inflation-year|UK-GDP}}{{Inflation/fn|UK-GDP}}) to

{{blockquote|the aviator who shall first cross the Atlantic in an aeroplane in flight from any point in the United States of America, Canada or [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]] and any point in Great Britain or Ireland" in 72 continuous hours.<ref name="DailyMail1918">{{cite news|title=The Daily Mail Atlantic Prize|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1918/1918%20-%201315.html|work=[[Flight International|Flight Magazine]]|page=1316|date=21 November 1918|access-date=5 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521184250/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1918/1918%20-%201315.html|archive-date=21 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

The [[John Cyril Porte|competition]] was suspended with the outbreak of [[World War I]] in 1914 but reopened after [[Armistice with Germany|Armistice]] was declared in 1918.<ref name="DailyMail1918"/> The war saw tremendous advances in aerial capabilities, and a real possibility of transatlantic flight by aircraft emerged.

Between 8 and 31 May 1919, the Curtiss seaplane ''[[NC-4]]'' made a crossing of the Atlantic flying from the U.S. to [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]], then to the [[Azores]], and on to mainland [[Portugal]] and finally the [[United Kingdom]]. The whole journey took 23 days, with six stops along the way. A trail of 53 "station ships" across the [[Atlantic]] gave the aircraft points to navigate by. This flight was not eligible for the ''Daily Mail'' prize since it took more than 72 consecutive hours and also because more than one aircraft was used in the attempt.<ref name=DailyMailprize1918>{{cite web|url= http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1918/1918%20-%201315.html|title= Daily Mail £10,000 prize conditions 1918|access-date= 19 June 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110521184250/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1918/1918%20-%201315.html|archive-date= 21 May 2011|url-status= live}}</ref>

Four teams were competing for the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic. They were Australian pilot [[Harry Hawker]] with observer Kenneth Mackenzie-Grieve in a single-engine [[Sopwith Atlantic]]; [[F. P. Raynham|Frederick Raynham]] and C. W. F. Morgan in a [[Martinsyde]]; the [[Handley Page]] Group, led by Admiral [[Mark Kerr (Royal Navy officer, born 1864)|Mark Kerr]]; and the [[Vickers Limited|Vickers]] entry John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown. Each group had to ship its aircraft to Newfoundland and make a rough field for the takeoff.<ref name=tpp>{{cite web | url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/economy/aviation-pioneer-period.php | title=Aviation: The Pioneer Period}}</ref><ref name=bjb>{{cite book | title=The Flying Firsts of Walter Hinton | first=Benjamin J. |last=Burns}}</ref>

Hawker and Mackenzie-Grieve made the first attempt on 18 May, but engine failure brought them down into the ocean where they were rescued. Raynham and Morgan also attempted on 18 May but crashed on takeoff due to the high fuel load. The Handley Page team was in the final stages of testing its aircraft for the flight in June, but the Vickers group was ready earlier.<ref name=tpp/><ref name=bjb/>

{{Main|Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown}}
[[File:Alcockandbrown takeoff1919.jpg|thumb|left|[[Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown|Alcock and Brown]] made the first non-stop transatlantic flight in June 1919. They took off from [[St John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St John's]], [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]], and landed in [[Clifden, County Galway]], Ireland.]]
[[File:Alcock-Brown-Clifden.jpg|thumb|left|The plane of Alcock and Brown having landed in Ireland. While the touchdown had been smooth, the plane had landed on a [[peat]] [[bog]] and not grass as Alcock had thought, and as the plane ran on it eventually sank axle-deep, pivoting over its wheels.<ref name="Daredevil">{{cite news |title=Into the Unknown: The daredevils who flew across an ocean|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/extra/bM5diyl48K/alcock |access-date=18 May 2024 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>]]

During 14–15 June 1919, the British aviators [[Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown|Alcock and Brown]] made the first non-stop transatlantic flight.<ref>[http://www.aviation-history.com/airmen/alcock.htm "Alcock and Brown – Great Britain"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213103027/http://aviation-history.com/airmen/alcock.htm |date=13 December 2010 }}. Aviation-history.com. Retrieved: 23 September 2011.</ref> During the War, Alcock resolved to fly the Atlantic, and after the war, he approached the [[Vickers]] engineering and aviation firm at [[Weybridge]], which had considered entering its [[Vickers Vimy]] IV twin-engined bomber in the competition but had not yet found a pilot. Alcock's enthusiasm impressed Vickers's team, and he was appointed as its pilot. Work began on converting the Vimy for the long flight, replacing its bomb racks with extra petrol tanks.<ref>Peter G. Cooksley, 'Alcock, Sir John William (1892–1919)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online ed., Jan 2011 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30363, accessed 16 June 2012]</ref> Shortly afterwards Brown, who was unemployed, approached Vickers seeking a post and his knowledge of long-distance navigation convinced them to take him on as Alcock's navigator.<ref>E. C. Shepherd, 'Brown, Sir Arthur Whitten (1886–1948)’, rev. Peter G. Cooksley, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2011 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/32104, accessed 16 June 2012]</ref>

Vickers's team quickly assembled its plane and at around 1:45&nbsp;p.m. on 14 June, while the Handley Page team was conducting yet another test, the Vickers plane took off from Lester's Field, in [[St John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St John's, Newfoundland]].<ref name="Century">{{cite web|url=http://www.century-of-flight.net/Aviation%20history/daredevils/Atlantic%202.htm|title=The Atlantic Challenge:Alcock and Brown Take the Atlantic|last=Anon|work=Century of Flight|publisher=Centuryofflight.net|access-date=16 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120821212510/http://www.century-of-flight.net/Aviation%20history/daredevils/Atlantic%202.htm|archive-date=21 August 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

Alcock and Brown flew the modified Vickers Vimy, powered by two [[Rolls-Royce Eagle]] 360&nbsp;hp engines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aviation-history.com/airmen/alcock.htm|title=Alcock and Brown|publisher=Aviation History Online Museum|access-date=13 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213103027/http://aviation-history.com/airmen/alcock.htm|archive-date=13 December 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> It was not an easy flight, with unexpected fog, and a snow storm almost causing the crewmen to crash into the sea. Their altitude varied between sea level and {{convert|12000|ft}} and upon takeoff, they carried 865 [[imperial gallon]]s (3,900 L) of fuel. They made landfall in [[Clifden]], [[County Galway]] at 8:40&nbsp;a.m. on 15 June 1919, not far from their intended landing place, after less than sixteen hours of flying.<ref name="Century"/><ref>Listen to interviews with people that met the plane on Bowman Sunday Morning, RTÉ radio archives, http://www.rte.ie/radio1/bowmansundaymorning/1249939.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102082712/http://www.rte.ie/radio1/bowmansundaymorning/1249939.html |date=2 November 2012 }}</ref>

[[File:alcock.brown.statue.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Statue of Alcock and Brown at [[London Heathrow Airport]]]]
The [[Secretary of State for Air]], [[Winston Churchill]], presented Alcock and Brown with the [[Daily Mail aviation prizes|''Daily Mail'' prize]] for the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in "less than 72 consecutive hours".<ref name="DailyMail1913">{{cite news|title=£10,000 for first transatlantic flight (in 72 continuous hours)|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1913/1913%20-%200387.html|work=Flight magazine|page=393|date=5 April 1913|access-date=5 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128120353/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1913/1913%20-%200387.html|archive-date=28 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> There was a small amount of mail (3lb) carried on the flight making it also the first transatlantic [[airmail]] flight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fi.edu/flight/long/after.htm|title=After the Flight|last=Anon|work=Long flight|publisher=Science Museum|access-date=15 June 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929062523/http://www.fi.edu/flight/long/after.htm|archive-date=29 September 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Baldwin |first= Norman Cecil |date=1945 |title=Bridging the Atlantic : a chronological record of all projected, attempted and successful Atlantic flights until the inception of regular services, and a priced catalogue of souvenirs  |location=Sutton Coldfield, England |publisher=F.J. Field |page=18}}</ref> The two aviators were [[Order of the British Empire|knighted]] one week later by [[George V|King George&nbsp;V]] at [[Windsor Castle]].<ref>{{cite news| title=Alcock and Brown Knighted by King George V| url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1919/1919%20-%200830.html| work = Flight magazine| page = 830| date = 26 June 1919| access-date =22 April 2023}}</ref>

The first transatlantic flight by [[rigid airship]], and the first return transatlantic flight, was made just a couple of weeks after the [[transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown]], on 2 July 1919. Major [[George Herbert Scott]] of the [[Royal Air Force]] flew the [[R34 (airship)#R34|airship R34]] with his crew and passengers from [[RAF East Fortune]], Scotland to [[Mineola, New York]] (on [[Long Island]]), covering a distance of about {{convert|3000|mi}} in about four and a half days.

The flight was intended as a testing ground for postwar commercial services by airship (see [[Imperial Airship Scheme]]), and it was the first flight to transport paying passengers. The R34 wasn't built as a passenger carrier, so extra accommodations were arranged by slinging hammocks in the keel walkway. The return journey to [[RNAS Pulham|Pulham]] in [[Norfolk]], was from 10 to 13 July over some 75 hours.

The first aerial crossing of the South Atlantic was made by the Portuguese naval aviators [[Gago Coutinho]] and [[Sacadura Cabral]] in 1922. Coutinho and Cabral flew from [[Lisbon]], Portugal, to [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil in stages, using three different [[Fairey III]] biplanes, and they covered a distance of {{convert|8383|km}} between 30 March and 17 June.

The first transatlantic flight between Spain and South America was completed in January 1926 with a crew of Spanish aviators on board ''[[Plus Ultra (aircraft)|Plus Ultra]]'', a [[Dornier Do J]] flying boat; the crew was the captain [[Ramón Franco]], co-pilot [[Julio Ruiz de Alda|Julio Ruiz de Alda Miqueleiz]], Teniente de Navio (Navy Lieutenant), Juan Manuel Durán, and Pablo Rada.

The first transpolar flight eastbound and the first flight crossing the North Pole ever was the airship carrying Norwegian explorer and pilot [[Roald Amundsen]] on 11 May 1926. He flew with the airship "NORGE" ("Norway") piloted by the Italian colonel [[Umberto Nobile]], non-stop from [[Svalbard]], Norway to [[Teller, Alaska]], USA. The flight lasted for 72 hours.

The first night-time crossing of the South Atlantic was accomplished on 16–17 April 1927 by the Portuguese aviators [[José Manuel Sarmento de Beires|Sarmento de Beires]], Jorge de Castilho and Manuel Gouveia, flying from the [[Bijagós Archipelago]], [[Portuguese Guinea]], to [[Fernando de Noronha]], Brazil in the ''Argos'', a [[Dornier Do J|Dornier Wal]] flying boat.

[[File:Charles Lindbergh and the Spirit of Saint Louis (Crisco restoration, with wings).jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Charles Lindbergh]] with the ''[[Spirit of St. Louis]]'' – 1927.]]
In the early morning of 20 May 1927, [[Charles Lindbergh]] took off from [[Roosevelt Field (airport)|Roosevelt Field]], [[Mineola, New York]], on his successful attempt to fly nonstop from New York to the European continental land mass. Over the next 33.5 hours, Lindbergh and the ''[[Spirit of St. Louis]]'' encountered many challenges before landing at [[Le Bourget Airport]] near [[Paris]], at 10:22&nbsp;p.m. on 21 May 1927, completing the first solo crossing of the Atlantic.

The first east-west non-stop transatlantic crossing by an aeroplane was made in 1928 by the ''[[Bremen (aircraft)|Bremen]]'', a German [[Junkers W33]] type aircraft, from [[Casement Aerodrome|Baldonnel Airfield]] in [[County Dublin]], Ireland.<ref>"The Flight of the Bremen". Republished 50 years on, retrieved from ''The Irish Times,'' 12 April 1978.</ref>

On 18 August 1932 [[Jim Mollison]] made the first east-to-west solo trans-Atlantic flight; flying from [[Portmarnock]] in Ireland to [[Pennfield, New Brunswick]], Canada in a [[de Havilland Puss Moth]].<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1932/1932%20-%200851.html "Mollison's Atlantic Flight."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102075747/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1932/1932%20-%200851.html |date=2 November 2012 }} ''Flight'', 26 August 1932, p. 795.</ref>

In 1936 the first woman aviator to cross the Atlantic east to west, and the first person to fly solo from England to North America, was [[Beryl Markham]]. She wrote about her adventures in her memoir, ''West with the Night''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Markham |first=Beryl |author-link=Beryl Markham |title=West with the Night |location=San Francisco |publisher=North Point Press |date=1983 |orig-year=1942 |isbn=0-86547-118-5}}</ref>

The first transpolar transatlantic (and transcontinental) crossing was the {{ill|Transpolar flight of Chkalov, Baydukov and Belyakov|lt=non-stop flight|ru|Беспосадочный перелёт Москва — Северный полюс — Ванкувер}} piloted by the crew led by [[Valery Chkalov]] covering some {{convert|8811|km}} over 63 hours from [[Moscow]], [[Russia]] to [[Vancouver, Washington]] from 18–20 June 1937.

===Commercial airship flights===
[[File:Graf Zeppelin First North American Flight 1928.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Flown picture postcard from the "First North American Flight" of the D-LZ127 (1928)]]

On 11 October 1928, [[Hugo Eckener]], commanding the [[airship]] ''[[LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin|Graf Zeppelin]]'' as part of [[DELAG]]'s operations, began the first non-stop transatlantic passenger flights, leaving [[Friedrichshafen]], Germany, at 07:54 on 11 October 1928, and arriving at [[NAS Lakehurst]], [[New Jersey]], on 15 October.

Thereafter, DELAG used the ''Graf Zeppelin'' on regularly scheduled passenger flights across the North Atlantic, from [[Frankfurt|Frankfurt-am-Main]] to Lakehurst. In the summer of 1931, a South Atlantic route was introduced, from Frankfurt and Friedrichshafen to [[Recife]] and [[Rio de Janeiro]]. Between 1931 and 1937 the ''Graf Zeppelin'' crossed the South Atlantic 136 times.<ref>[http://www.airships.net/lz127-graf-zeppelin/history "Graf Zeppelin history".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026155041/http://www.airships.net/lz127-graf-zeppelin/history/ |date=26 October 2017 }} ''Airships.net.'' Retrieved: 5 July 2013.</ref>

The British rigid airship [[R100]] made a successful return trip from [[Cardington, Bedfordshire|Cardington]] to [[Montreal]] in July–August 1930, in what was intended to be a proving flight for regularly scheduled passenger services. Following the [[R101#Final flight|R101 disaster]] in October 1930, the British rigid airship program was abandoned and the R100 scrapped, leaving DELAG as the sole remaining operator of transatlantic passenger airship flights.

In 1936 DELAG began passenger flights with ''[[LZ 129 Hindenburg]]'', and made 36 Atlantic crossings (North and South). The first passenger trip across the North Atlantic left Friedrichshafen on 6 May with 56 crew and 50 passengers, arriving at Lakehurst on 9 May. The fare was $400 one way; the ten westward trips that season took 53 to 78 hours and eastward took 43 to 61 hours. The last eastward trip of the year left Lakehurst on 10 October; the first North Atlantic trip of 1937 ended in the [[Hindenburg disaster]].

===Commercial aeroplane service attempts===

It would take two more decades after Alcock and Brown's first nonstop flight across the Atlantic in 1919 before commercial airplane flights became practical. The North Atlantic presented severe challenges for aviators due to weather and the long distances involved, with few stopping points. Initial transatlantic services, therefore, focused on the South Atlantic, where some French, German, and Italian airlines offered [[seaplane]] service for mail between South America and West Africa in the 1930s.

Between February 1934 and August 1939 [[Deutsche Luft Hansa|Lufthansa]] operated a regular airmail service between [[Natal, Rio Grande do Norte|Natal, Brazil]], and [[Banjul|Bathurst, Gambia]], continuing ''via'' the [[Canary Islands]] and Spain to [[Stuttgart]], Germany.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Graue |first1=James W. |title=Deutsche Lufthansa, South Atlantic Airmail Service: 1934 - 1939 |last2=Duggan |first2=John |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-9514114-5-2 |series=Zeppelinpost Handbook |location=Ickenham}}</ref> From December 1935, [[Air France]] opened a regular weekly airmail route between South America and Africa. German airlines experimented with mail routes over the North Atlantic in the early 1930s, with flying boats and dirigibles. 

In August 1938<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thisdayinaviation.com/10-11-august-1938/ | title=10–11 August 1938 &#124; This Day in Aviation | date=10 August 2023 }}</ref> a [[Deutsche Luft Hansa]] [[Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor]] long-range airliner flew non-stop from<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m0K28_SOFzw | title=Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor record flight between Berlin and New York in 1938 | website=[[YouTube]] | date=8 May 2020 }}</ref> Berlin [[Floyd_Bennett_Field#Notable_flights|to New York]] and returned non-stop as a proving flight for the development of passenger-carrying services. This was the first landplane to fulfil this function and marked a departure from the British and American reliance on flying boats for long over-water routes.<ref>Karl-Dieter Seifert "Der Deutsche Luftverkehr 1926–1945" Bernard & Graefe Verlag, Bonn 1996 {{ISBN|3-7637-6118-7}} (in German) p. 303–304</ref> Operators of the Fw 200 focussed on other routes, though.

==== Flying boats ====
[[File:Consolidated PBY Catalina landing at Naval Air Station Jacksonville, Florida (USA), circa in 1943.jpg|thumb|Flying boats were used for transatlantic flights in the 1930s|right]]
[[File:Seaplanes at Foynes.jpg|thumb|left|[[Foynes]], [[Ireland]] was the European terminus for all transatlantic flying boat flights in the 1930s.]]

In the 1930s a flying boat route was the only practical means of transatlantic air travel, as land-based aircraft lacked sufficient range for the crossing. An agreement between the governments of the US, Britain, Canada, and the [[Irish Free State]] in 1935 set aside the Irish town of [[Foynes]], the most westerly port in [[Ireland]], as the terminal for all such services to be established.<ref name="History Ireland">{{cite web|url=http://www.historyireland.com/troubles-in-ni/ni-1920-present/the-flying-boats-of-foynes/|title=The Flying Boats of Foynes|date=11 February 2013|publisher=History Ireland|access-date=19 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604114900/http://www.historyireland.com/troubles-in-ni/ni-1920-present/the-flying-boats-of-foynes/|archive-date=4 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Imperial Airways]] had bought the [[Short Empire]] flying boat, primarily for use along the [[British Empire|empire]] routes to Africa, Asia and Australia, and had established an international airport on [[Darrell's Island, Bermuda|Darrell's Island]], in the [[Imperial fortress]] [[British Overseas Territory|colony]] of [[Bermuda]] (640 miles off [[Cape Hatteras]], [[North Carolina]]), which began serving both Imperial Airways, subsequently renamed [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] (BOAC) and [[Pan American World Airways]] (PAA) flights from the United States in 1936,<ref>{{cite book |last=Partridge and Singfield |first=Ewan and Tom|author-link= |date=2014 |title=Wings Over Bermuda: 100 Years of Aviation in the West Atlantic |url=https://nmb.bm/ |location=[[Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda]], Ireland Island, Sandys Parish, Bermuda |publisher=National Museum of Bermuda Press |page= |isbn=9781927750322}}</ref> but began exploring the possibility of using it for transatlantic flights from 1937. PAA would begin scheduled trans-Atlantic flights via Bermuda before Imperial Airways did,<ref>{{cite book |last=Pomeroy |first=Squadron Leader Colin A. |author-link= |date=2000 |title=The Flying Boats Of Bermuda |url= |location=Hamilton, Pembroke, Bermuda|publisher=Printlink Ltd |page= |isbn=9780969833246}}</ref> enabling the United States Government to covertly assist the British Government before the United States entry into the Second World War as mail was taken off trans-Atlantic PAA flights by the Imperial Censorship of [[British Security Co-ordination]] to search for secret communications from Axis spies operating in the United States, including the [[Kurt Frederick Ludwig#Setting up the ring|Joe K ring]], with information gained being shared with the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]].<ref>{{Cite news |first=Tim |last=Hodgson |url=https://www.royalgazette.com/other/news/article/20160425/celebrating-a-wartime-spy-chief |title=Celebrating a wartime spy chief |work=The Royal Gazette |location=City of Hamilton, Pembroke, Bermuda |access-date=2022-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fairmont.com/hamilton-bermuda/hotel-history |title=Hotel History of the Fairmont Hamilton Princess |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=Fairmont Hamilton Princess Hotel (Princess Hotel) |publisher=Fairmont Hotels & Resorts |access-date=2022-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--not stated--> |date=2011-11-11 |title=Bermuda's WWII Espionage Role |url=http://bernews.com/2011/11/bermudas-second-world-war-espionage-role |work=BERNEWS |location=Bermuda |access-date=2022-07-23}}</ref> The range of the Short Empire flying boat was less than that of the equivalent US [[Sikorsky S-42|Sikorsky "Clipper" flying boats]] and as such was initially unable to provide a true trans-Atlantic service.<ref name="History Ireland"/>

Two flying boats (''Caledonia'' and ''Cambria'') were lightened and given long-range tanks to increase the aircraft's range to {{convert|3300|mi}}.

In the US, attention was at first focused on transatlantic flights for a faster postal service between Europe and the United States. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the second assistant postmaster, wrote an article for ''[[Popular Mechanics]]'' on the challenges and the need for a regular service.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=u-IDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Mechanics+1931+curtiss&pg=PA186 "Wings Across The Atlantic."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129162830/http://books.google.com/books?id=u-IDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA186&dq=Popular+Mechanics+1931+curtiss&hl=en&ei=2kTvTOz_A6HfnQfR0_C7Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=true |date=29 January 2014 }} ''Popular Mechanics'', March 1931.</ref> In the 1930s, under the direction of [[Juan Trippe]], [[Pan Am]]erican began to get interested in the feasibility of a transatlantic passenger service using flying boats.

[[File:Airplane. Captain Wilcockson Signs Autograph BAnQ P48S1P01041.jpg|thumb|right|Captain Wilcockson signing an autograph for one of his admirers, in July 1937, near [[Montreal, Quebec]].]]

On 5 July 1937, A.S. Wilcockson flew a [[Short Empire]] for [[Imperial Airways]] from Foynes to [[Botwood]], [[Newfoundland]] and Harold Gray piloted a [[Sikorsky S-42]] for Pan American in the opposite direction. Both flights were a success and both airlines made a series of subsequent proving flights that same year to test out a variety of different weather conditions. [[Air France]] also became interested and began experimental flights in 1938.<ref name="Gandt">Gandt, Robert L. ''China Clipper—The Age of the Great Flying Boats''. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1991. {{ISBN|0-87021-209-5}}.</ref>

As the Short Empire only had enough range with enlarged fuel tanks at the expense of a passenger room, several pioneering experiments were done with the aircraft to work around the problem. It was known that aircraft could maintain flight with a greater load than is possible to take off with, so Major Robert H. Mayo, Technical general manager at [[Imperial Airways]], proposed mounting a small, long-range seaplane on top of a larger carrier aircraft, using the combined power of both to bring the smaller aircraft to operational height, at which time the two aircraft would separate, the carrier aircraft returning to base while the other flew on to its destination.<ref name="History Ireland"/>

The [[Short Mayo Composite]] project, co-designed by Mayo and Shorts chief designer Arthur Gouge,<ref name="Barnes">{{cite book|author=Barnes C.H.|title =Shorts Aircraft since 1900|year =1989|publisher =Putnam|location =London|isbn = 0-85177-819-4|page =560}}</ref><ref>"[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1962/1962%20-%202457.html World News: Sir Arthur Gouge] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028210952/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1962/1962%20-%202457.html |date=28 October 2014 }}". ''Flight International'', 25 October 1962, page 660</ref> comprised the ''Short S.21 Maia'',<ref name="maia">Named for [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]], the Greek goddess and mother of [[Hermes]], messenger of the Gods, while Hermes was known to the Romans as [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]]</ref> (''G-ADHK'') which was a variant of the [[Short Empire|Short "C-Class" Empire]] flying-boat fitted with a trestle or pylon on the top of the fuselage to support the ''Short S.20 Mercury''(''G-ADHJ'').<ref name="maia"/><ref>Flight 19 August 1937 p180</ref>

The first successful in-flight separation of the ''Composite'' was carried out on 6 February 1938, and the first transatlantic flight was made on 21 July 1938 from [[Foynes]] to [[Boucherville]].<ref>[http://www.borstal.org.uk/history/shorts.shtml Also contains an eye-witness account of the first in-flight separation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118194510/http://www.borstal.org.uk/history/shorts.shtml |date=18 November 2008 }}</ref> ''Mercury'', piloted by Captain [[Don Bennett]],<ref>Captain Bennett was later the first commander of the RAF [[Pathfinder Force]] in World War II and became an [[Air Vice Marshal]]</ref> separated from her carrier at 8&nbsp;pm to continue what was to become the first commercial non-stop east-to-west transatlantic flight by a [[heavier-than-air]] machine. This initial journey took 20 hrs, 21 min at an average ground speed of {{convert|144|mph}}.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1938/1938%20-%202137.html "Mercury makes good"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215093439/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1938/1938%20-%202137.html |date=15 December 2013 }} ''Flight'' 28 July 1938. pp. 79–80</ref>

Another technology developed for transatlantic commercial flight was [[aerial refuelling]]. Sir [[Alan Cobham]] developed the ''Grappled-line looped-hose'' system to stimulate the possibility for long-range transoceanic commercial aircraft flights,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1947/1947%20-%200392.html |title='' "Refueling In Flight" '', Flight magazine, 1947 |access-date=19 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402160634/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1947/1947%20-%200392.html |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> and publicly demonstrated it for the first time in 1935. In the system, the receiver aircraft trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker. The line was then drawn back into the tanker where the receiver's cable was connected to the refueling hose. The receiver could then haul back in its cable bringing the hose to it. Once the hose was connected, the tanker climbed sufficiently above the receiver aircraft to allow the fuel to flow under gravity.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KSYDAAAAMBAJ&q=popular+science+1947+%22Faster,+huskier,+and%22&pg=RA2-PA82 |title="Gas Station In The Sky" '', January 1947,'' Popular Science |date=January 1947 |access-date=20 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140617204831/http://books.google.com/books?id=KSYDAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA2-PA82&dq=popular+science+1947+%22Faster,+huskier,+and%22&hl=en&ei=oqbbTMb-MdH_nQegvNAW&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=true |archive-date=17 June 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1945/1945%20-%202295.html?search=Flight%20Refuelling "Refuelling In Flight", ''Flight Magazine'', 22 November 1945] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005123217/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1945/1945%20-%202295.html?search=Flight%20Refuelling |date=5 October 2013 }} close-up drawing of receiver pawl grapnel and tanker haul line projectile</ref>

Cobham founded [[Flight Refuelling Ltd]] in 1934 and by 1938 had demonstrated the ''FRL's looped-hose'' system to refuel the [[Short Empire]] flying boat ''Cambria'' from an [[Armstrong Whitworth AW.23]].<ref>''History of Aviation'', Part 19, 1938</ref> [[Handley Page H.P.54 Harrow|Handley Page Harrows]] were used in the 1939 trials to aerial refuel the Empire flying boats for regular transatlantic crossings. From 5 August – 1 October 1939, sixteen crossings of the Atlantic were made by Empire flying boats, with 15 crossings using FRL's aerial refuelling system.<ref>Note&nbsp;– on one flight there was a high westerly wind and no need for aerial refuelling </ref> After the 16 crossings more trials were suspended due to the outbreak of World War II.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1940/1940%20-%201219.html?search=Flight%20Refuelling |title='' "Refuelling In Flight" '', Flight magazine, 25 August 1940 |access-date=19 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005122815/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1940/1940%20-%201219.html?search=Flight%20Refuelling |archive-date=5 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Short S.26]] was built in 1939 as an enlarged [[Short Empire]], powered by four 1,400&nbsp;hp (1,044&nbsp;kW) [[Bristol Hercules]] sleeve valve radial engines and designed with the capability of crossing the Atlantic without refuelling. It was intended to form the backbone of [[Imperial Airways]]' Empire services. It could fly {{convert|6000|mi}} unburdened, or 150 passengers for a "short hop".<ref name=flight1939-59>{{citation |title=The Biggest Short |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1939/1939-1-%20-%200196.html |journal=Flight |date=20 July 1939 |page=59 |access-date=19 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714130903/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1939/1939-1-%20-%200196.html |archive-date=14 July 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 21 July 1939, the first aircraft, (G-AFCI "Golden Hind"), was first flown at Rochester by Shorts' chief [[test pilot]], [[John Lankester Parker]]. Although two aircraft were handed over to Imperial Airways for crew training, all three were impressed (along with their crews) into the [[RAF]] before they could begin civilian operation with the onset of [[World War II]].

[[File:Boeing 314 Yankee Clipper 1939.jpg|left|thumb|The ''[[Boeing 314 Clipper|Yankee Clipper]]'' in 1939.]]

Meanwhile, Pan Am bought nine [[Boeing 314 Clipper]]s in 1939, a long-range [[flying boat]] capable of flying the [[Atlantic]].<ref name=Follett>{{cite book |chapter=Author's Note |title=Night over water|url=https://archive.org/details/nightoverwater00kenf |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/nightoverwater00kenf/page/399 399] |author-link=Ken Follett |first=Ken |last=Follett|isbn=0-688-04660-6 |lccn=91017701|publisher=[[William Morrow and Company]]|location=New York |year=1991}}</ref> The "Clippers" were built for "one-class" luxury air travel, a necessity given the long duration of transoceanic flights. The seats could be converted into 36 bunks for overnight accommodation; with a cruising speed of only {{convert|188|mph|km/h}}. The 314s had a lounge and dining area, and the galleys were crewed by chefs from four-star hotels. Men and women were provided with separate dressing rooms, and white-coated stewards served five and six-course meals with gleaming silver service.<ref name="travelscholar">[http://www.travelscholar.com/concorde/ "British Airways Concorde."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060523202342/http://www.travelscholar.com/concorde/ |date=23 May 2006 }} ''Travel Scholar'', Sound Message, LLC. Retrieved: 19 August 2006.</ref>

The ''Yankee Clipper'''s inaugural trip across the Atlantic was on 24 June 1939. Its route was from [[Southampton]] to [[Port Washington, New York]] with intermediate stops at [[Foynes|Foynes, Ireland]], [[Botwood, Newfoundland and Labrador|Botwood, Newfoundland]], and [[Shediac|Shediac, New Brunswick]]. Its first passenger flight was on 9 July, and this continued only until the onset of the [[Second World War]], less than two months later. The ''Clipper'' fleet was then pressed into military service and the flying boats were used for ferrying personnel and equipment to the [[European theatre of World War II|European]] and [[Pacific Theatre of World War II|Pacific fronts]].

===Maturation===
[[File:RAF Darell's Island.jpg|thumb|RAF [[Darrell's Island, Bermuda|Darrell's Island]] during World War II. This base was used throughout the war for trans-Atlantic ferrying of aircraft.]]
It was from the emergency exigencies of World War II that crossing the Atlantic by land-based aircraft became a practical and commonplace possibility. With the [[Fall of France]] in June 1940, and the loss of much war [[materiel]] on the continent, the need for the British to purchase replacement materiel from the United States was urgent. Airbases for refuelling were built in [[Greenland]] and [[Iceland]], which were occupied by the United States after the [[German invasion of Denmark (1940)]].

The British and United States Governments hurried a secret agreement before Britain declared war on Germany in 1939 for the United States to establish a base in Bermuda. Ultimately, the agreement would be expanded to include a [[Naval Air Station Bermuda Annex|United States Naval Operating Base]], containing a Naval Air Station serving anti-submarine flying boats, on the [[Great Sound]] (near to the [[Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda]], [[Royal Naval Air Station Bermuda]] that had been operated for the [[Royal Navy]] with the rest of the [[Fleet Air Arm]] at its original location in [[Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda|HM Dockyard Bermuda]] until 1939 by the Royal Air Force, and the Darrell's Island airport, which the Royal Air Force took over for trans-Atlantic ferrying of flying boats such as the [[Consolidated PBY Catalina|Catalinas]], which were flown there from United States factories to be tested before acceptance by the Air Ministry and delivery across the Atlantic, usually on direct flights to [[Greenock]], [[Scotland]]. [[RAF Transport Command]] flights, such as those flown by [[Consolidated PB2Y Coronado|Coronados]], also utilised the facility as BOAC and PAA continued to do) and [[Kindley Air Force Base|Kindley Field]], serving land planes, constructed by the United States Army for operation by the United States Army Air Forces, but to be used jointly by the Royal Air Force and Royal Navy. In January 1942, Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] visited Bermuda on his return to Britain, following December 1941 meetings in [[Washington D.C.]], with US President [[Franklin Roosevelt]], in the weeks after the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Japanese attack]] on [[Pearl Harbor]].<ref>[http://bernews.com/2012/03/churchills-1942-flying-bermuda-visit/ Bernews: Churchill’s 1942 Flying Bermuda Visit]</ref> Churchill flew into Darrell's Island on the BOAC [[Boeing 314]] ''Berwick''. Although it had been planned to continue the journey aboard the battleship [[HMS Duke of York (17)|HMS Duke of York]], he made an impulsive decision to complete it by a direct flight from Bermuda to Plymouth, England aboard Berwick, marking the first trans-Atlantic air crossing by a national leader.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-04-18|title=Churchill's 1942 Flying Bermuda Visit|url=https://winstonchurchill.org/publications/churchill-bulletin/bulletin-047-may-2012/churchills-1942-flying-bermuda-visit/|access-date=2020-08-11|website=The International Churchill Society}}</ref> When the first runway at Kindley Field became operational in 1943, the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm relocated [[Blackburn Roc|Roc]] target tugs that had been operating on floats from RNAS Bermuda to the airfield to operate as land planes, and RAF Transport Command moved its operations there, leaving RAF Ferry Command at Darrell's Island.

The time it was taken for an aircraft – such as the [[Lockheed Hudson]] – bought in the United States, to be flown to [[Nova Scotia]] and [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]], and then partially dis-assembled before being transported by ship to England, where it was re-assembled and subject to repairs of any damage sustained during shipment, could mean an aircraft could not enter service for several weeks. Further, German [[U-boat]]s operating in the [[North Atlantic Ocean]] made it particularly hazardous for merchant ships between Newfoundland and Britain.<ref name="ferry">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/I/AAF-I-9.html |title=The Early Development of Air Transport and Ferrying |access-date=19 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707053211/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/I/AAF-I-9.html |archive-date=7 July 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Larger aircraft could be flown directly to the UK and an organization was set up to manage this using civilian pilots. The program was begun by the [[Ministry of Aircraft Production]]. Its minister, [[Lord Beaverbrook]] a Canadian by origin, reached an agreement with Sir [[Edward Wentworth Beatty|Edward Beatty]], a friend and chairman of the [[Canadian Pacific Railway Company]] to provide ground facilities and support. [[Ministry of Aircraft Production]] would provide civilian crews and management and former RAF officer [[Don Bennett]], a specialist in long-distance flying and later Air Vice Marshal and commander of the [[Pathfinder Force]], led the first delivery flight in November 1940.<ref name=juno>[http://www.junobeach.org/e/4/can-tac-air-fer-e.htm Ferrying Aircraft Overseas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306142254/http://www.junobeach.org/e/4/can-tac-air-fer-e.htm |date=6 March 2014 }} Juno Beach Centre</ref>

In 1941, MAP took the operation off CPR to put the whole operation under the [[RAF Ferry Command|Atlantic Ferry Organization]] ("Atfero"), which was set up by Morris W. Wilson, a banker in [[Montreal]]. Wilson hired civilian pilots to fly the aircraft to the UK. The pilots were then ferried back in converted RAF [[Consolidated B-24 Liberator|Liberators]]. "Atfero hired the pilots, planned the routes, selected the airports [and] set up weather and radiocommunication stations."<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851303,00.html#ixzz1Iem3cS77 "World War In the Air: One Way Airline"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130828015651/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851303,00.html#ixzz1Iem3cS77 |date=28 August 2013 }}, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', 20 October 1941</ref><ref>Jeffrey Davis, "ATFERO: The Atlantic Ferry Organization" ''Journal of Contemporary History'', Vol. 20, No. 1, January 1985</ref>

[[File:Aaffc-routes-jun-1942.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Major trunk air routes of [[Air Transport Command|AAF Ferrying Command]], June 1942.]]
The organization was passed to the Air Ministry administration by retaining civilian pilots, some of whom were Americans, alongside RAF navigators and British radio operators. After completing delivery, crews were flown back to Canada for the next run.<ref>{{citation |journal=Flight |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1941/1941%20-%202889.html |title=Atlantic Ferry |date=4 December 1941 |access-date=19 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408220447/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1941/1941%20-%202889.html |archive-date=8 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[RAF Ferry Command]] was formed on 20 July 1941, by the raising of the RAF Atlantic Ferry Service to Command status.<ref name=air>[http://www.rafweb.org/Cmd_H3A.htm "RAF Home Commands formed between 1939–1957"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111221936/http://www.rafweb.org/Cmd_H3A.htm |date=11 January 2011 }} Air of Authority – A History of RAF Organisation</ref> Its commander for its whole existence was [[Air Chief Marshal]] Sir [[Frederick Bowhill]].<ref name=air/>

As its name suggests, the main function of Ferry Command was the [[Ferry flying|ferrying]] of new aircraft from factory to operational unit.<ref name=kloot>[http://www.vanderkloot.com/sky2.html ''Flying the Secret Sky: The Story of the RAF Ferry Command''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113112954/http://www.vanderkloot.com/sky2.html |date=13 January 2010 }}</ref> Ferry Command did this over only one area of the world, rather than the more general routes that Transport Command later developed. The Command's operational area was the North Atlantic, and its responsibility was to bring the larger aircraft that had the range to do the trip over the ocean from American and Canadian factories to the RAF home Commands.<ref name=kloot/>

With the entry of the United States into the War, the Atlantic Division of the [[United States Army Air Forces]] [[Air Transport Command]] began similar ferrying services to transport aircraft, supplies, and passengers to the British Isles.

By September 1944 [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] (BOAC), as Imperial Airways had by then become, had made 1,000 transatlantic crossings.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1946/1946%20-%201325.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=1 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221001110/https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1946/1946%20-%201325.html |archive-date=21 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After World War II long runways were available, and North American and European carriers such as [[Pan Am]], [[Trans World Airlines|TWA]], [[Trans Canada Airlines]] (TCA), BOAC, and [[Air France]] acquired larger piston airliners that could cross the North Atlantic with stops (usually in [[Gander International Airport|Gander]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] and/or [[Shannon Airport|Shannon]], Ireland). In January 1946 Pan Am's [[Douglas DC-4]] was scheduled from New York ([[LaGuardia Airport|La Guardia]]) to London ([[Bournemouth Airport|Hurn]]) in 17 hours 40 minutes, five days a week; in June 1946 [[Lockheed L-049 Constellation]]s had brought the eastward time to [[Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow]] down to 15 hr 15 min.

To aid aircraft crossing the Atlantic, six nations grouped to divide the Atlantic into ten zones. Each zone had a letter and a vessel station in that zone, providing radio relays, radio navigation beacons, weather reports, and rescues if an aircraft went down. The six nations of the group split the cost of these vessels.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=C9wDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA94 "Air Traffic Fills Atlantic Skies."] ''Popular Mechanics'', December 1953, pp. 94–95.</ref>

The September 1947 ABC Guide shows 27 passenger flights a week west across the North Atlantic to the US and Canada on BOAC and other European airlines and 151 flights every two weeks on Pan Am, AOA, TWA, and TCA, 15 flights a week to the Caribbean and South America, plus three a month on Iberia and a [[Latécoère 631]] six-engine flying boat every two weeks to Fort de France.

[[File:DH Comet 1 BOAC Heathrow 1953.jpg|thumb|[[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] [[de Havilland Comet|Comet 1]] at [[Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow]] in 1953]]
In May 1952, BOAC was the first airline to introduce a [[passenger jet]], the [[de Havilland Comet]], into airline service, operating on routes in Europe and beyond (but not transatlantic). All Comet 1 aircraft were grounded in April 1954 after four Comets crashed, the last two being BOAC aircraft which suffered catastrophic failure at altitude. Later jet airliners, including the larger and longer-range Comet 4, were designed so that in the event of for example a skin failure due to cracking the damage would be localized and not catastrophic.

On 4 October 1958, BOAC started the "first-ever transatlantic jet service" between [[Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow]] and [[New York-Idlewild Airport|New York Idlewild]] with a Comet 4, and [[Pan Am]] followed on 26 October with a [[Boeing 707]] service between New York and Paris.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/analysis-how-the-jet-travel-era-began-in-earnest-449222/ |title= How the jet travel era began in earnest – 60 years ago |date= 4 October 2018 |author= Max Kingsley Jones |work= Flightglobal |access-date= 6 October 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181005141521/https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/analysis-how-the-jet-travel-era-began-in-earnest-449222/ |archive-date= 5 October 2018 |url-status= live }}</ref>

Supersonic flights on [[Concorde]] were offered from 1976 to 2003, from London (by British Airways) and Paris (by Air France) to New York and Washington, and back, with flight times of around three and a half hours one-way. Since the loosening of regulations in the 1970s and 1980s, many airlines now compete across the Atlantic.

=== Present day ===

In 2015, 44 million seats were offered on the transatlantic routes, an increase of 6% over the previous year. Of the 67 European airports with links to North America, the busiest was London [[Heathrow Airport]] with 231,532 weekly seats, followed by Paris [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]] with 129,831, [[Frankfurt Airport]] with 115,420, and [[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol]] with 79,611. Of the 45 airports in North America, the busiest linked to Europe was New York [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]] with 198,442 seats, followed by [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] with 90,982, New York [[Newark Liberty International Airport]] with 79,107, and Chicago [[O'Hare International Airport]] with 75,391 seats.<ref name=AA150604>{{cite web |url= http://www.anna.aero/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/150603-connect-transatlantic.pdf |title= The transatlantic market |website= Anna.aero |date= 4 June 2015 |access-date= 11 January 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160917172016/http://www.anna.aero/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/150603-connect-transatlantic.pdf |archive-date= 17 September 2016 |url-status= live }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Million seats offered<ref name=AA150604/>
|-
! Airline !! 2005 !! 2015 !! ∆
|-
| [[Delta Air Lines]] || 2.79 || 5.33 || {{#expr:(5.33/2.79-1)*100round0}}%
|-
| [[British Airways]] || 4.93 || 4.85 || {{#expr:(4.85/4.93-1)*100round0}}%
|-
| [[United Airlines]] || 2.37 || 4.78 || {{#expr:(4.78/2.37-1)*100round0}}%
|-
| [[Lufthansa]] || 2.99 || 3.80 || {{#expr:(3.80/2.99-1)*100round0}}%
|-
| [[American Airlines]] || 2.87 || 2.84 || {{#expr:(2.84/2.87-1)*100round0}}%
|-
| [[Air Canada]] || 1.78 || 2.76 || {{#expr:(2.76/1.78-1)*100round0}}%
|-
| [[Air France]] || 2.23 || 2.49 || {{#expr:(2.49/2.23-1)*100round0}}%
|-
| [[Virgin Atlantic]] || 1.84 || 2.38 || {{#expr:(2.38/1.84-1)*100round0}}%
|-
| [[US Airways]] || 1.13 || 1.75 || {{#expr:(1.75/1.13-1)*100round0}}%
|-
| [[KLM]] || 1.12 || 1.45 || {{#expr:(1.45/1.12-1)*100round0}}%
|}

[[Joint venture]]s, allowing coordination on prices, schedules, and strategy, control almost 75% of Transatlantic capacity. They are parallel to [[airline alliance]]s: [[British Airways]], [[Iberia (airline)|Iberia]] and [[American Airlines]] are part of [[Oneworld]]; [[Lufthansa]], [[Air Canada]] and [[United Airlines]] are members of [[Star Alliance]]; and [[Delta Air Lines]], [[Air France]], [[KLM]] and [[Alitalia]] belong to [[SkyTeam]]. [[Low cost carrier]]s are starting to compete on this market, most importantly [[Norwegian Air Shuttle]], [[WestJet]] and [[WOW Air]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://airwaysnews.com/blog/2016/05/05/trans-atlantic-market-analysis/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506134501/http://airwaysnews.com/blog/2016/05/05/trans-atlantic-market-analysis/ |url-status=dead|archive-date=6 May 2016 |title= Analysis: The Transatlantic Market in Summer 2016 |website=Airways News |date= 5 May 2016}}</ref> A total of 431 non-stop routes between North America and Europe were scheduled for summer 2017, up 84 routes from 347 in 2012 – a 24% increase.<ref name=AA170125>{{cite news |url= http://www.anna.aero/2017/01/25/80-new-routes-north-america-europe/ |title= Over 80 new routes between North America and Europe launched since S12; North America to Asia routes up by 50% in same period |date= 25 January 2017 |website= Anna.aero |access-date= 25 January 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170127005604/http://www.anna.aero/2017/01/25/80-new-routes-north-america-europe/ |archive-date= 27 January 2017 |url-status= live }}</ref>

In 2016 Dr. Paul Williams of the University of Reading published a scientific study showing that transatlantic flight times are expected to change as the North Atlantic [[jet stream]] responds to [[global warming]], with eastbound flights speeding up and westbound flights slowing down.<ref>Williams, Paul D. "Transatlantic flight times and climate change" ''Environmental Research Letters'', 11(2), 024008, 2016. {{doi|10.1088/1748-9326/11/2/024008}}.</ref>

In February 2017, Norwegian Air International announced it would start transatlantic flights to the [[United States]] from the [[United Kingdom]] and Ireland in the summer of 2017 on behalf of its parent company using the parent's new [[Boeing 737 MAX]] aircraft expected to be delivered from May 2017.<ref>{{cite press release |url= http://media.norwegian.com/uk/#/pressreleases/norwegian-unveils-69-pounds-flights-to-the-usa-from-5-uk-and-irish-cities-1823267 |title= Norwegian unveils £69 flights to the USA from 5 UK and Irish cities |date= 23 February 2017 |publisher= Norwegian Air |access-date= 20 July 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170719185550/http://media.norwegian.com/uk/#/pressreleases/norwegian-unveils-69-pounds-flights-to-the-usa-from-5-uk-and-irish-cities-1823267 |archive-date= 19 July 2017 |url-status= live }}</ref>
Norwegian Air performed its first transatlantic flight with a [[Boeing 737-800]] on 16 June 2017 between [[Edinburgh Airport]] and [[Stewart Airport, New York]].<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/todayinthesky/2017/06/16/new-era-budget-travel-norwegian-begins-boeing-737-flights-europe/102918452/ |title= New era budget travel Norwegian begins Boeing 737 flights Europe |date= 16 June 2017 |work= USA Today |access-date= 20 July 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170712204041/https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/todayinthesky/2017/06/16/new-era-budget-travel-norwegian-begins-boeing-737-flights-europe/102918452/ |archive-date= 12 July 2017 |url-status= live }}</ref>
The first transatlantic flight with a 737 MAX was performed on 15 July 2017, with a MAX 8 named ''Sir [[Freddie Laker]]'', between [[Edinburgh Airport]] in Scotland and [[Hartford International Airport]] in the US state of Connecticut, followed by a second rotation from Edinburgh to [[Stewart Airport, New York]].<ref>{{cite news |url= http://atwonline.com/airframes/norwegian-performs-first-transatlantic-737-max-flight |title= Norwegian performs first transatlantic 737 MAX flight |date= 18 July 2017 |author= Victoria Moores |work= Aviation Week Network |access-date= 19 July 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170718155439/http://atwonline.com/airframes/norwegian-performs-first-transatlantic-737-max-flight |archive-date= 18 July 2017 |url-status= live }}</ref>

Long-haul [[low-cost carrier]]s are emerging on the transatlantic market with 545,000 seats offered over 60 city pairs in September 2017 (a 66% growth over one year), compared to 652,000 seats over 96 pairs for [[Air charter|leisure airlines]]{{Definition needed|date=September 2020}} and 8,798,000 seats over 357 pairs for [[Mainline (aeronautics)|mainline carriers]].<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/asset/21162 |title= LCCs – in it for the long-haul? |date= 5 October 2017 |work= Flightglobal |access-date= 5 October 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171006013448/https://www.flightglobal.com/asset/21162 |archive-date= 6 October 2017 |url-status= live }}</ref>
LCC seats grew to 7.7% of North Atlantic seats in 2018 from 3.0% in 2016, led by Norwegian with 4.8% then WOW air with 1.6% and [[WestJet]] with 0.6%, while the three [[airline alliance]]s dedicated [[joint venture]]s seat share is 72.3%, down from 79.8% in 2015.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://centreforaviation.com/insights/analysis/north-atlantic-aviation-market-lccs-grow-market-share-410928 |title= North Atlantic aviation market: LCCs grow market share |date= 12 April 2018 |work= CAPA |access-date= 13 April 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180414010441/https://centreforaviation.com/insights/analysis/north-atlantic-aviation-market-lccs-grow-market-share-410928 |archive-date= 14 April 2018 |url-status= live }}</ref>
By July 2018, Norwegian became the largest European airline for [[New York City|New York]], carrying 1.67&nbsp;million passengers over a year, beating [[British Airways]]'s 1.63&nbsp;million, while the U.S. [[major carrier]]s combined transported 26.1&nbsp;million transatlantic passengers.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/air-transport/2018-10-09/norwegian-now-non-us-leader-transatlantic-nyc-market |title= Norwegian Now Non-U.S. Leader in Transatlantic NYC Market |author= Cathy Buyck |date= 9 October 2018 |work= AIN online |access-date= 11 October 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181011214533/https://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/air-transport/2018-10-09/norwegian-now-non-us-leader-transatlantic-nyc-market |archive-date= 11 October 2018 |url-status= live }}</ref>