Editing Triboelectric effect (section)

== History ==
{{See also|Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics|History of electromagnetic theory|Electric charge#History}}
The historical development of triboelectricity is interwoven with work on static electricity and electrons themselves. Experiments involving triboelectricity and static electricity occurred before the discovery of the electron. The name [[wiktionary:ἤλεκτρον|ēlektron]] (ἤλεκτρον) is Greek for [[amber]],<ref name="DictOrigins">{{cite book |last=Shipley |first=J. T. |title=Dictionary of Word Origins |page=133 |publisher=[[The Philosophical Library]] |date=1945 |isbn=978-0-88029-751-6 |url= https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00ship/page/133 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Benjamin |first=Park |title=A history of electricity (the intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin by Park Benjamin ... |date=1898 |publisher=J. Wiley |location=New York |pages=1-45 ,Chapters 1-2 |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.19628|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/59453 }}</ref> which is connected to the recording of electrostatic charging by [[Thales of Miletus]] around 585 BC,<ref name="Lacks">{{Cite journal |last1=Iversen |first1=Paul |last2=Lacks |first2=Daniel J. |date=2012 |title=A life of its own: The tenuous connection between Thales of Miletus and the study of electrostatic charging |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304388612000216 |journal=Journal of Electrostatics |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=309–311 |doi=10.1016/j.elstat.2012.03.002 |issn=0304-3886|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and possibly others even earlier.<ref name="Lacks" /><ref name="Roller 1953 343–356">{{Cite journal |last1=Roller |first1=Duane |last2=Roller |first2=Duane H. D. |date=1953 |title=The Prenatal History of Electrical Science |url= https://pubs.aip.org/aapt/ajp/article/21/5/343-356/1035214 |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=343–356 |doi=10.1119/1.1933449 |bibcode=1953AmJPh..21..343R |issn=0002-9505|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The prefix ''{{transliteration|grc|tribo-}}'' (Greek for 'rub') refers to sliding, friction and related processes, as in [[tribology]].<ref>{{Citation |title=tribo- |date=2023-08-26 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=tribo-&oldid=75791868 |work=Wiktionary, the free dictionary |access-date=2023-09-05 |language=en}}</ref>

From the [[Axial Age|axial age]] (8th to 3rd century BC) the attraction of materials due to static electricity by rubbing [[amber]] and the attraction of magnetic materials were considered to be similar or the same.<ref name=":23" /> There are indications that it was known both in Europe and outside, for instance China and other places.<ref name=":23" /> Syrian women used amber whorls in weaving and exploited the triboelectric properties, as noted by [[Pliny the Elder]].<ref name=":23" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Properties of Amber |url=https://www.getty.edu/publications/ambers/intro/6/ |access-date=16 August 2023 |website=Ancient Carved Ambers in the J. Paul Getty Museum |language=en}}</ref>

The effect was mentioned in records from the medieval period. Archbishop [[Eustathius of Thessalonica]], Greek scholar and writer of the 12th century, records that Woliver, [[king of the Goths]], could draw sparks from his body. He also states that a philosopher was able, while dressing, to draw sparks from his clothes, similar to the report by [[Robert Symmer]] of his silk stocking experiments, which may be found in the 1759 [[Philosophical Transactions]].<ref name="EncyclopediaAmericana">{{cite book |last=Maver |first=William Jr. |contribution=Electricity, Its History and Progress |url= https://archive.org/stream/encyclopediaame21unkngoog#page/n210/mode/1up |title=The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge |volume=X |pages=172 ''ff.'' |date=1918 |location=New York |publisher=Encyclopedia Americana Corp. |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

[[File:Hauksbee Generator.JPG|thumb|upright|Generator built by [[Francis Hauksbee]]<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Hauksbee |first=Francis |url= https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130282268698739328 |title=Physico-mechanical experiments |journal=(No Title) |publisher=J. Senex & W. Taylor |date=1719 |edition=2nd |location=London}}</ref>]]
It is generally considered<ref name="Roller 1953 343–356" /> that the first major scientific analysis was by [[William Gilbert (physician)|William Gilbert]] in his publication [[De Magnete]] in 1600.<ref name="EncyclopediaAmericana" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gilbert |first1=William |last2=Mottelay |first2=Paul Fleury |title=De magnete |date=1991 |orig-date=1893 |publisher=Dover publ |isbn=978-0-486-26761-6 |edition=Facsimile |location=New York}}</ref> He discovered that many more materials than amber such as sulphur, wax, glass could produce static electricity when rubbed, and that moisture prevented electrification. Others such as [[Sir Thomas Browne]]  made important contributions slightly later, both in terms of materials and the first use of the word [[electricity]] in [[Pseudodoxia Epidemica]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knight |first=Thomas Brown |url= http://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudodoxia.shtml |title=Pseudodoxia epidemica: or, Enquiries into very many received tenents and commonly presumed truths (6th and last ed., corr. and enl.). Book II Chapter IV |date=1672 |pages=82–86 |doi=10.1037/13887-000}}</ref> He noted that metals did not show triboelectric charging, perhaps because the charge was conducted away.  An important step was around 1663 when [[Otto von Guericke]] invented<ref>{{Cite journal |last=de V. Heathcote |first=N.H. |date=1950 |title=Guericke's sulphur globe |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00033795000201981 |journal=Annals of Science |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=293–305 |doi=10.1080/00033795000201981 |issn=0003-3790|url-access=subscription }}</ref> a machine that could automate triboelectric charge generation, making it much easier to produce more tribocharge; other [[electrostatic generator]]s followed.<ref name="EncyclopediaAmericana" /> For instance, shown in the Figure is an electrostatic generator built by [[Francis Hauksbee the Younger]]. Another key development was in the 1730s when [[C. F. du Fay]] pointed out that there were two types of charge which he named ''vitreous'' and ''resinous''.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1733 |title=V. A letter from Mons. Du Fay, F. R. S. and of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, to his Grace Charles Duke of Richmond and Lenox, concerning electricity. Translated from the French by T. S. M D |url= https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1733.0040 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |language=la |volume=38 |issue=431 |pages=258–266 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1733.0040 |s2cid=186208701 |issn=0261-0523|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Keithley |first=Joseph F.|title=The story of electrical and magnetic measurements: from 500 BC to the 1940s |date=1999 |publisher=IEEE Press |isbn=978-0-7803-1193-0 |location=New York}}</ref> These names corresponded to the glass (vitreous) rods and bituminous coal, amber, or sealing wax (resinous) used in du Fay's experiments.<ref name="Whittaker">{{Cite book |last=Whittaker |first=Edmund T. |title=A history of the theories of aether & electricity. 2: The modern theories, 1900–1926 |date=1989 |publisher=Dover Publ |isbn=978-0-486-26126-3 |edition=Repr |location=New York}}</ref>{{rp|I:44}} These names were used throughout the 19th century. The use of the terms ''positive'' and ''negative'' for types of electricity grew out of the independent work of [[Benjamin Franklin]] around 1747 where he ascribed electricity to an over- or under- abundance of an electrical fluid.<ref name="Whittaker" />{{rp||pages=43–48}}

At about the same time [[Johan Carl Wilcke]] published in his 1757 PhD thesis a <em>triboelectric series</em>.<ref name=":35">{{Cite book |last=Wilcke |first=Johan Carl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mld_nQEACAAJ |title=Disputatio physica experimentalis, de electricitatibus contrariis ... |date=1757 |publisher=Typis Ioannis Iacobi Adleri |language=la}}</ref><ref name="Dictionary of Scientific Biography">{{cite book |last=Gillispie |first=C. C. |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography |pages=352–353 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |date=1976}}</ref> In this work materials were listed in order of the polarity of charge separation when they are touched or slide against another. A material towards the bottom of the series, when touched to a material near the top of the series, will acquire a more negative charge.

The first systematic analysis of triboelectricity is considered to be the work of [[Jean Claude Eugène Péclet]] in 1834.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peclet |first=M. E. |date=1834 |title=Memoire sur l'Electricite produit par le Frottement |url= https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6568974z/f343.item.r=Peclet |journal=[[Annales de chimie et de physique]] |volume=lvii |pages=337–416}}</ref> He studied  triboelectric charging for a range of conditions such as the material, pressure and rubbing of surfaces. It was some time before there were further quantitative works by Owen in 1909<ref name=":37">{{Cite journal |last=Owen |first=Morris |date=1909 |title=XLII. On frictional electricity |url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786440408636622 |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |volume=17 |issue=100 |pages=457–465 |doi=10.1080/14786440408636622 |issn=1941-5982}}</ref> and Jones in 1915.<ref name=":38">{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=W. Morris |date=1915 |title=XXX. Frictional electricity on insulators and metals |url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786440208635305 |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |volume=29 |issue=170 |pages=261–274 |doi=10.1080/14786440208635305 |issn=1941-5982|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The most extensive early set of experimental analyses was from 1914–1930 by the group of Professor Shaw, who laid much of the foundation of experimental knowledge. In a series of papers he: was one of the first to mention some of the failings of the triboelectric series, also showing that heat had a major effect on tribocharging;<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Shaw |first=P. E. |date=1914 |title=The Electrification of Surfaces as Affected by Heat |url= https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1478-7814/27/1/317 |journal=Proceedings of the Physical Society of London |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=208–216 |doi=10.1088/1478-7814/27/1/317 |bibcode=1914PPSL...27..208S |issn=1478-7814|url-access=subscription }}</ref> analyzed in detail where different materials would fall in a triboelectric series, at the same time pointing out anomalies;<ref name=":19" /> separately analyzed glass and solid elements<ref name=":27">{{Cite journal |last1=Shaw |first1=P. E. |last2=Jex |first2=C. S. |date=1928 |title=Tribo-electricity and friction. II.—Glass and solid elements |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character |volume=118 |issue=779 |pages=97–108 |doi=10.1098/rspa.1928.0037 |bibcode=1928RSPSA.118...97S |issn=0950-1207|doi-access=free }}</ref> and solid elements and textiles,<ref name="Shaw 1928 108–113">{{Cite journal |last1=Shaw |first1=P. E. |last2=Jex |first2=C. S. |date=1928 |title=Tribo-Electricity and Friction. III. Solid Elements and Textiles |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character |volume=118 |issue=779 |pages=108–113 |doi=10.1098/rspa.1928.0038 |jstor=94891 |bibcode=1928RSPSA.118..108S |issn=0950-1207}}</ref> carefully measuring both tribocharging and friction; analyzed charging due to air-blown particles;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shaw |first=P. W. |date=1929 |title=Tribo-electricity and friction. IV.—Electricity due to air-blown particles |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character |volume=122 |issue=789 |pages=49–58 |doi=10.1098/rspa.1929.0004 |bibcode=1929RSPSA.122...49S |issn=0950-1207|doi-access=free }}</ref> demonstrated that surface strain and relaxation played a critical role for a range of materials,<ref name="royalsocietypublishing.org">{{Cite journal |last1=Shaw |first1=P. E. |last2=Hanstock |first2=R. F. |date=1930 |title=Triboelectricity and friction. —V. On surface strain and relaxation of like solids |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character |volume=128 |issue=808 |pages=474–480 |doi=10.1098/rspa.1930.0125 |bibcode=1930RSPSA.128..474S |s2cid=137932809 |issn=0950-1207|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shaw |first1=P. E. |last2=Hanstock |first2=R. F. |date=1930 |title=Triboelectricity and friction.—VI. On surface strain and relaxation for unlike solids |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character |volume=128 |issue=808 |pages=480–487 |doi=10.1098/rspa.1930.0126 |bibcode=1930RSPSA.128..480S |issn=0950-1207|doi-access=free }}</ref> and examined the tribocharging of many different elements with silica.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shaw |first1=P. E. |last2=Leavery |first2=E. W. |date=1932 |title=Triboelectricity and friction. VII.—Quantitative results for metals and other solid elements, with silica |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character |volume=138 |issue=836 |pages=502–514 |doi=10.1098/rspa.1932.0199 |bibcode=1932RSPSA.138..502S |s2cid=136574422 |issn=0950-1207|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Much of this work predates an understanding of [[Band-bending diagram|solid state variations]] of energies levels with position, and also [[band bending]].<ref name=":16" /> It was in the early 1950s in the work of authors such as Vick<ref name=":1" /> that these were taken into account along with concepts such as [[quantum tunnelling]] and behavior such as [[Schottky barrier]] effects, as well as including models such as [[asperities]] for contacts based upon the work of [[Frank Philip Bowden]] and [[David Tabor (physicist)|David Tabor]].<ref name=":18" />