Editing Tvrđa (section)

==History==

===Medieval and Ottoman eras===
[[File:Osijek (tvrđa).JPG|thumb|left|Tvrđa viewed from across the [[Drava|River Drava]] (possible location of the former [[Suleiman Bridge]]).]]
The new name of Osijek first appeared in 1196.<ref name=UNESCO>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/161/|author=Croatian Ministry of Culture Directorate for the Protection of Cultural Heritage|title=Historical-Town Planning Ensemble Tvrda (Fort) in Osijek|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|date=1 February 2005|access-date=11 May 2010}}</ref> The center of [[medieval]] Osijek was on the banks of the [[Drava|River Drava]] where Tvrđa now stands.<ref name=UNESCO/> The town was a trade and port settlement from the early 12th century due to its position on the way from [[Pécs]] and [[Buda]] southwards.<ref name="prostor">{{cite journal | url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/file/48574 | title=Preobrazba bastionskih utvrđenja grada Osijeka |trans-title=Conversion of bastion fortifications in Osijek | last1=Krajnik | first1=Damir | last2=Obad Šćitaroci | first2=Mladen | journal=Prostor | volume=16 | issue=2 | date=December 2008 | issn=1330-0652 | publisher=[[University of Zagreb]], Faculty of Architecture | pages=168–179 | language=hr | format=PDF}}</ref> The site was home to the [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] church of the [[Holy Trinity]]. Between 1526 and 1687 Osijek was ruled by the Ottomans, who did not change the layout of the settlement in any substantial way but introduced Islamic [[places of worship]], giving the area an [[Oriental]] appearance.<ref name=UNESCO/> Traces of medieval and Ottoman towns remain to this day, including a remnant of the old Ottoman fortress wall, known today as the "Turkish Wall" ({{lang|hr|Turski zid}}) or "Filibey's Fort" ({{lang|hr|Filibejeva utvrda}}), lying next to the Tvrđa access road.<ref name="WMW">{{cite book|url=http://www.wmf.org/sites/default/files/wmf_publication/Watch_Catalog_1996.pdf|title=World Monuments Watch List of 100 Most Endangered Sites 1996|publisher=World Monuments Fund|page=22|location=New York|isbn=0-9627931-7-5|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130320153209/http://www.wmf.org/sites/default/files/wmf_publication/Watch_Catalog_1996.pdf|archive-date=20 March 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="gctvrdja">{{cite web|url=http://www.gctvrdja.com/tvrda-engleski/|title=Tvrđa|date=22 December 2008|work=gctvrdja.com|publisher=Tvrđa City District|access-date=12 September 2010}}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

During the Ottoman period, Osijek was internationally known because of the [[Suleiman Bridge]].<ref name=UNESCO/> The construction of the bridge was begun by [[Pargalı İbrahim Pasha|İbrahim Pasha]] on 16 August 1526 following the orders of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].<ref name="Kemal Çiçek">{{cite book | last=Çiçek | first=Kemal | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZdpAAAAMAAJ&q=Suleiman+Bridge | title=Great Ottoman Turkish civilization | year=2000 | publisher=Yeni Türkiye | isbn=9789756782217}}</ref> The bridge, which connected Osijek and [[Darda, Croatia|Darda]], took the form of a wooden road on piers and was approximately {{convert|7|km}} long and {{convert|6|m}} wide.<ref name=UNESCO/> Seen as a great threat to Christian Europe the bridge was attacked several times, being destroyed in 1664, when it was set on fire on the orders of [[Hungarians|Hungarian]] feudal lord [[Miklós Zrínyi|Nicholas VII of Zrin]] ({{langx|hr|Nikola VII. Zrinski}}, {{langx|hu|VII. Zrínyi Miklós}}).<ref>{{cite book|title=Yugoslav review|year=1979|edition=9th|publisher=Jugoslovenska Revija|page=41|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rV_pAAAAMAAJ&q=Zrinski}}</ref> The bridge was rebuilt during the rule of [[Suleiman II of the Ottoman Empire|Suleiman II]].<ref name=UNESCO/> Finally, it was burned down by the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg]] armies in 1686.<ref name=UNESCO/>

===Design and construction===

====First layout in late 17th century====
Development of the military settlement at Tvrđa started in 1687 when the Habsburg armies drove the Ottomans out of the city during the [[Great Turkish War]].<ref name="IYP">{{cite web|url=http://www.inyourpocket.com/croatia/osijek/sightseeing/essentialosijek/venue/6088-tvra.html|title=Tvrđa|work=Essential Osijek|publisher=[[In Your Pocket City Guides|In Your Pocket]]|access-date=30 November 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012003431/http://www.inyourpocket.com/croatia/osijek/sightseeing/essentialosijek/venue/6088-tvra.html|archive-date=12 October 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The chief commander of the [[Holy Roman Empire|Imperial]] army, [[Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden]], saw Osijek as a location of exceptional strategic importance in the war against the Ottomans.<ref name="Vijenac">{{cite journal|url=http://www.matica.hr/vijenac/414/Tvr%C4%91a%3A%20ishodi%C5%A1te%20Osijeka/|title=Tvrđa: ishodište Osijeka|date=14 January 2010|volume=414|journal=[[Vijenac]]|location=Zagreb|publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]]|last=Mažuran|first=Ive|issn=1330-2787|language=hr|access-date=16 March 2015}}</ref> He urged the repair of the city walls, and proposed construction of a new fort according to [[Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban|Vauban's]] principles of [[military engineer]]ing.<ref name="prostor"/><ref name="Vijenac"/>

The town magistrate was established in 1690, while the plans for the new fort were still being drawn up, and one of its documents from August of the same year described the condition of the settlement as "ruinous".<ref name="Vijenac"/> Two months later, on 29 October, the Ottoman army suddenly attacked.<ref name="Vijenac"/> The attack was repulsed only thanks to a well-organised defense, and the Turks withdrew on 6 November, after a brief siege.<ref name="Vijenac"/> The event was a clear lesson that the construction of the fort must not be delayed any further.<ref name="Vijenac"/> The first phase of Tvrđa's conversion into a [[Baroque]] fortress was based on the plan devised by the engineer [[Mathias von Kaiserfeld]] from 1691.<ref name="prostor"/>

====Second layout in 18th century====
[[File:St. Michael's Church, Osijek.jpg|thumb|upright|left|This single-nave [[Saint Michael (Roman Catholic)|St. Michael's]] Church with two towers (1725–1748) was built by the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] on the foundations of the Kasim-pasha's Mosque.<ref name="gctvrdja"/>]]
[[File:Rektorat Osijek.JPG|thumb|right|Former [[Palace of Slavonian General Command|General Command]] is featured on [[Croatian kuna|200 kuna banknote]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/hnovcan.htm | title=Croatian National Bank – Coins and banknotes | language=hr | access-date=5 July 2013 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703222905/http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/hnovcan.htm | archive-date=3 July 2013 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>]]
The original plan for Tvrđa was drafted because of the need to reinforce the town walls, but did not include provisions to redesign the interior and envisaged largely uncontrolled development. New plans for a fort on the right bank of the River Drava were drawn up by [[Maximilian Gosseau de Henef]]. Gosseau took over planning of the fort when construction was already under way.<ref name=UNESCO/> Starting in August 1712, Austrian engineers, supervised by the fort's commander, General [[Johann Stephan von Beckers]],<ref name=AOOT>{{cite web|url=http://www.aoot.hr/history|title=History of Tvrđa|publisher=Agencija za obnovu osječke Tvrđe|access-date=6 April 2015}}</ref> built [[barracks]], staff headquarters, churches and [[monastery|monasteries]], surrounded by system of [[moat]]s, [[bastions]] and gun positions, respecting Gosseau's design.<ref name=UNESCO/><ref name="IYP"/><ref name="IYP2">{{cite web|url=http://www.inyourpocket.com/data/download/osijek.pdf|title=Osijek In Your Pocket 2009/2010|publisher=In Your Pocket|access-date=May 12, 2010|location=Zagreb}}</ref> The design followed the model of lowland Dutch military fortifications of the period.<ref name=AOOT/>

By 1715, all five planned bastions and two [[gate]]s were complete. An additional, western, gate leading to the [[Gornji grad (Osijek)|Upper Town]] was added in 1716. The construction of the [[outwork]] on the opposite bank of the [[River Drava]], designed to offer protection from the north and to serve as a [[bridgehead]], was completed by 1721.<ref name=UNESCO/> The final, fourth gate, leading to the [[Donji grad (Osijek)|Lower Town]], was not added until 1783.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://radio.hrt.hr/radio-osijek/clanak/tvra-svetkuje-miholje/70965/|title=Tvrđa svetkuje Miholje|date=29 September 2014|last=Bajto|first=Amoreta|work=radio.hrt.hr|publisher=[[Croatian Radiotelevision]]|language=hr|access-date=13 April 2015|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418230825/https://radio.hrt.hr/radio-osijek/clanak/tvra-svetkuje-miholje/70965/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Construction of the inner town was completed by 1733, and in 1735 three additional northern bastions were completed, along with a post office, the fort's construction office and a hospital.<ref name=UNESCO/> The completed fort had "eight bastions, two armories, two major depots, garrison headquarters, military court, construction office, garrison physician, guardhouse, officer apartments, military hospital and seven barracks".<ref name=UNESCO/> Based on the 'ring model', the fortifications took up an area of {{convert|80|ha}},<ref name="prostor"/> making Tvrđa the largest fortress on the border with the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="WMW"/>

[[File:Archaeological Museum in Osijek.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Former [[The City Guard in Osijek|City Guard]] ({{langx|hr|Glavna straža}}, {{langx|de|link=no|Hauptwache}}), built in 1729, now hosts the Archaeological Museum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.muih.hr/content/view/18/36/|title=Muzejska Udruga Istočne Hrvatske – Arheološki muzej Osijek|work=muih.hr|publisher=Muzejska udruga istočne Hrvatske|language=hr|access-date=29 August 2010|archive-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306032017/http://muih.hr/content/view/18/36|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
Gosseau's plan left space for churches to be built where mosques had once stood. Initially, converted mosques were used as churches, but [[Franciscans]] started to build a [[Baroque]] church in 1709 and it was consecrated in 1732.<ref name=UNESCO/> A Franciscan monastery was built between 1699 and 1705, with a new wing being added between 1731 and 1733, which subsequently became a new monastery in 1761.<ref name=UNESCO/><ref name="OBZ">{{cite web|url=http://www.obz.hr/en/pdf/VodicENG.pdf|title=Cultural and Historical Heritage of Osijek-Baranja County|publisher=Tourist Board of the Osijek-Baranja County|access-date=12 May 2010|location=Osijek|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417123232/http://www.obz.hr/en/pdf/VodicENG.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1725, the [[Jesuits]] commenced construction of the parish church of St. Michael ({{langx|hr|Sveti Mihovil}}), following the construction of their own monastery. This church was in use after 1734, despite being incomplete.<ref name=UNESCO/> A [[Marian and Holy Trinity columns|Holy Trinity column]] was erected in the fort's main square in 1730 as a [[Plague (disease)|plague]] monument featuring [[volute]]s with pedestals on which four protectors against the plague are placed. Four additional pedestals were added to the monument in 1784, each featuring a statue of a saint.<ref name="OBZ"/> Tvrđa had [[street lighting]] as early as 1717.<ref name=UNESCO/> The first system to supply public water in Croatia was opened in Tvrđa in 1751.<ref name="Živaković-Kerže">{{cite journal|url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=65886&lang=en|title=The first public water supply system in Osijek|first=Zlata|last=Živaković-Kerže|year=2008|journal=Scrinia Slavonica|volume=8|pages=147–151|issue=1}}</ref>

In the mid-18th century there were reportedly more than 35 [[Public house#Inns|inn]]s in Tvrđa, estimated to an account for one in three of the fort's buildings.<ref name=UNESCO/> [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Crown prince Joseph]] stayed in one of the inns when visiting Osijek. In 1786, as Joseph II, he decreed the merger of the Upper Town, Lower Town and Tvrđa into one single town council.<ref name=UNESCO/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Tomašić |first1=Nebojša |last2=Radovanović|first2=Karin|title=Treasures of Yugoslavia: An Encyclopedic Touring Guide|publisher=Yugoslaviapublic|location=Belgrade|year=1982|page=188}}</ref>

===19th and 20th century===
[[File:Vodena vrata Tvrdja.jpg|thumb|right|The 'water gate' ({{langx|hr|Vodena vrata}}) is the only surviving gate out of four that were originally built.<ref name=UNESCO/><ref name="gctvrdja"/>]]
[[File:Plan of Tvrdja in Osijek 1861.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Plan of Tvrđa ({{langx|de|link=no|Festung Essegg}}) from 1861]]
As early as the second half of the 18th century there was little or no new constructions taking place in Tvrđa, and even maintenance of the fort became a burden.<ref name="Vijenac"/> In 1809 Osijek was granted [[free royal town]] status. Osijek's council was accommodated in a building at the south-eastern corner of Tvrđa's main square.<ref name=UNESCO/>

Tvrđa's military importance decreased after the [[Berlin Congress]] of 1878 as a result of increasing political and military stability in the region.<ref name=UNESCO/> Two north-western bastions were demolished in the 1870s, making way for Ambrose's Park ({{langx|hr|Ambrozijev perivoj}}).<ref name="prostor"/> Construction of the ''Royal Grammar School'' started in 1881, and the ''Royal General Secondary School'' was completed in 1890. Episcopal seminary was also built in the south-western corner of the main square in 1898.<ref name=UNESCO/> These were the only buildings erected within Tvrđa walls in the last three decades of the 19th century.<ref name="Vijenac"/>

As Osijek grew as a city, the fort's presence hindered the potential for [[urban development]]. The demolition of most of the fort walls happened between 1923 and 1926, with the construction of an electric tramway. The last [[gunpowder magazine]], located behind the church of St. Michael, was demolished in 1958.<ref name="Vijenac"/> While most of the fortifications have been demolished (only the first and eighth bastions and the northern wall with its so-called 'water gate' were kept),<ref name=UNESCO/> the center of Tvrđa remains intact.<ref name="IYP"/> The [[Yugoslav People's Army]] maintained a [[garrison]] and a military hospital in Tvrđa, but in the 1980s these buildings were gradually being abandoned, and adapted into ateliers for local painters and sculptors.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.zamirzine.net/spip.php?article4333 | title=Memento umjetnicima, ili kako je Đapić dokrajčio osječku umjetničku scenu | date=28 February 2007 | last=Mitoš Svoboda | first=Ljiljanka | publisher=ZaMirNET | language=hr | access-date=11 October 2010 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://archive.today/20120630190130/http://www.zamirzine.net/spip.php?article4333 | archive-date=30 June 2012 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

From February to June 1986, the fortress town was used as a filming location for the epic American miniseries ''[[War and Remembrance (miniseries)|War and Remembrance]]''. It played the role of the almost identical town of [[Theresienstadt]] in [[Czechoslovakia]], which had been converted to a concentration camp known as the "Paradise Ghetto", to which prominent Jews were sent by the Nazis.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://sib.net.hr/sibplus/skidamo-prasinu/3462461/rat-i-sjecanja-osjecka-tvrda-kao-zidovski-geto-u-drugom-svjetskom-ratu/ | work=SiB RTL | title= Rat i sjećanja: Osječka Tvrđa kao židovski geto u Drugom svjetskom ratu | date=November 3, 2017}}</ref> Stars [[Jane Seymour (actress)|Jane Seymour]], [[John Gielgud]] and [[Robert Stephens]] filmed throughout the town.<ref name="Krylova2017">{{cite book|author=Katya Krylova|title=The Long Shadow of the Past: Contemporary Austrian Literature, Film, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4NolDwAAQBAJ&q=osijek+%22war+and+remembrance%22&pg=PA34|date=11 April 2020|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|isbn=978-1571139399|pages=34}}</ref>

The fort sustained considerable damage during the [[Croatian War of Independence]], which lasted from 1991 until 1995.<ref name="WMW"/><ref name="CoE">{{cite web|url=https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage=259999&SecMode=1&DocId=546330&Usage=2|title=IVth European Conference of Ministers responsible for the Cultural Heritage, Helsinki, 30–31 May 1996: Report by the Secretary General submitted in pursuance of paragraph 8 of Resolution (71) 44 of the Committee of Ministers|date=9 July 1996|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]|page=34|access-date=12 May 2010|location=Strasbourg}}</ref> The war brought structural damage from collapsing roofs, walls and floors.<ref name="WMW"/> These damages threaten plaster, sculpture and murals that lack proper protection and are subject to continuing decay.<ref name="WMW"/>