Editing View-Master (section)

==History==

===1919–1956: early photo services===
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2021}}
Edwin Eugene Mayer worked as a pharmacist at [[The Owl Drug Company|Owl Drug]] store in downtown [[Portland, Oregon]], after serving in the [[U.S. Army]] in [[World War I]].  He built up a photo-finishing business there, and bought into [[Sawyer's]] Photo Finishing Service in 1919 with the help of his father August Mayer, his fiancée Eva McAnulty, and her sister Vi McAnulty.

Edwin described how he started the business in a letter dated April 1, 1954: "Suffice to say that in 1919, what little it was, was purchased with borrowed ($3,500) money from Dad, aided by about $1,600 in insurance money Eva got when her father died and which was left in permanently, and $1,600 borrowed from Vi and repaid, along with Dad's notes, within a few years."<ref>Document written by Edwin E. Mayer, dated April 1, 1954, stating history of Sawyers, Inc. Published in the family history "The Morris and McAnulty Connection", by Peggy Savage, 2013, Canby, OR.</ref>

As the business grew, Ed Mayer incorporated in about 1926, taking on partners Harold and Beulth F. Graves, Thomas and Pauline Meyer, and Augusta and Raymond F. Kelly, renaming the business Sawyer Service, Inc. The company relocated to a large two-story building at 181 Ella St., near Morrison Street in Portland, Oregon.<ref name="Edwin E. Mayer 1954">Document written by Edwin E. Mayer, dated April 1, 1954, stating history of Sawyers, Inc.</ref>

The company was producing photographic postcards and album sets as souvenirs by 1926, when Harold Graves joined Sawyer's. Graves handled marketing for the products while Mayer ran the business. Later, photographic greeting cards were added to the Sawyer's product line, marketed to major department stores. Sawyer's was the nation's largest producer of scenic postcards in the 1920s and the future View-Master viewer eventually became an extension of the two-dimensional cards.

[[File:Toronto view-master.jpg|thumb|right|A View-Master reel from 1948]]
The company took the first steps towards developing the View-Master after Edwin Mayer and Graves met with William Gruber, an organ maker of German origin trained by [[Welte-Mignon|Welte & Sons]] and an avid photographer living in Portland.<ref>Gretchen Jane Gruber: ''The Biography of William B. Gruber''. Mill City Press, Inc., 2015. {{ISBN|978-1634130097}}</ref> Mayer and Gruber had both developed devices for viewing stereo images, but Gruber had made up a stereo imaging rig out of two Kodak Bantam Specials mounted together on a tripod. He designed a machine that mounted the tiny pieces of Kodachrome color transparency film into reels made from heavy paper stock. A special viewer was also designed and produced. He had the idea of updating the old-fashioned stereoscope by using the new Kodachrome 16-mm color film, which had recently become available.

===New business venture===
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2021}}
A View-Master reel holds 14 film transparencies in seven pairs that create the seven stereoscopic images. The components of each pair are viewed simultaneously, one by each eye, thus simulating binocular depth perception.

According to a 1960 court document, the Gruber-Sawyer partner venture began from that first meeting in 1938. Thereafter, Ed Mayer negotiated with Gruber while production methods and some marketing were developed. A formal agreement was signed in February 1942 between Gruber and Sawyer partners, doing business as Sawyer's.

Mayer and people within the Sawyer's organization were uncertain about what to call the new product, but they eventually settled on the name of View-Master. The View-Master brand name eventually came to be recognized by 65% of the world's population, but Gruber disliked the name, believing that it sounded too much like Toast-Master, Mix-Master or some other kitchen appliance.<ref>[http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/285/683/161080/ 285 F.2d 683]
''Eva R. MAYER, Executrix of the Estate of Edwin E. Mayer, deceased, Harold J. Graves and Beulah F. Graves, Thomas O. Meyer and Pauline Meyer, Augusta Kelly, and The Estate of Raymond F. Kelly, deceased, Augusta Kelly, Residuary Legatee, Appellants, v. UNITED STATES of America, Appellee. No. 16103''. United States Court of Appeals Ninth Circuit. Dec. 9, 1960.</ref>

The View-Master was introduced at the [[1939 New York World's Fair]], marked "Patent Applied For". It was intended as an alternative to the scenic [[postcard]], and was originally sold at photography shops, stationery stores and scenic-attraction gift shops. The main subjects of View-Master reels were [[Carlsbad Caverns]] and the [[Grand Canyon]].<ref name="View-Master"/>

The View-Master was marketed through Mayer's photo-finishing, postcard and greeting card company Sawyer's Service, Inc., known eventually as Sawyer's, Inc. The partnership led to the retail sales of View-Master viewers and reels. The patent for the viewing device was issued in 1940, and this original model came to be called the Model A viewer. Within a very short time, the View-Master supplanted the postcard business at Sawyer's.

===Expansion===
Mayer gave details of the company's expansion in a letter dated April 1, 1954:

<blockquote>In 1939, 20 years after starting the business, we had, by dint of hard work and long hours and frugal living, accumulated a business (Sawyer's) worth about $58,000.00 and Western Photo Supply Co. owning the buildings, worth about $30,000.00. The above figures were for the total business and buildings owned by the Kellys, Graves, Mayers and Meyers. In 1946, we had already grown a lot from 1939, and Sawyer's made a lease with Western Photo Supply Co., they to build and lease two new buildings to Sawyer's, in addition to the two we already had. At this point, Sawyer's also decided to change its structure from a partnership to a corporation, for various good reasons, one of which was to permit our children to participate in the stock ownership.<ref name="Edwin E. Mayer 1954"/></blockquote>

In the 1940s, the United States military recognized the potential for View-Master products for personnel training, purchasing 100,000 viewers and nearly six million reels from 1942 to the end of [[World War II]] in 1945.<ref name="View-Master"/>

After the development of the View-Master, Sawyer's, Inc. moved into a new building at 735 S.W. 20th Place in downtown Portland. The company also occupied a building next door at 740 S.W. 21st Avenue. In 1951, Mayer and his Sawyer's partners built a large plant in Washington County, Oregon. After moving to the new plant, Mayer leased the building on 20th Place to Oregon Television, Inc.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

===1950s===
In 1951, Sawyer's purchased [[Tru-Vue]], the main competitor of View-Master. The takeover included Tru-Vue's licensing rights to [[List of assets owned by Disney#Studio Entertainment|Walt Disney Studios]] properties.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.antiquetrader.com/toys-collectibles/focusing-view-master-history-value/|title=Focusing on View-Master history and value|publisher=Antique Trader|language=en|author=Mary Ann Sell|date=10 November 2017|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref> Sawyer's capitalized on the opportunity and produced numerous reels featuring Disney characters. In 1955, reels of the newly opened [[Disneyland]] were produced.<ref name="View-Master"/> 
[[File:View-Master Model E.JPG|thumb|A View-Master Model E of the 1950s]] Joe Liptak was the artist responsible for most of the Disney and the early Hanna-Barbera reels.<ref>[https://viewmasterinfo.com/articles/artist_liptak Joe Liptak - The View-Master Database]</ref><ref name="Hollis">{{Cite book |last=Hollis |first=Tim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7AobBwAAQBAJ&q=liptak |title=Toons in Toyland: The Story of Cartoon Character Merchandise |date=2015-03-25 |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |isbn=978-1-62674-500-1 |location=Jackson, Mississippi |language=en}}</ref>

In 1952, Sawyer's began its View-Master Personal line, which included the [[View-Master Personal Stereo Camera]] for users to make their own View-Master reels. It was successful at first, but the line was discontinued in ten years. This line spawned the Model D viewer, View-Master's highest-quality viewer, which was available until the early 1970s, and the Stereomatic 500, View-Master's only 3D projector.<ref name="View-Master"/> The other projectors were 2D and used only one of the images.

The Model E was introduced in 1955 with a more modern design, large ivory buttons on the picture-changer levers and a large "V" slot on top for easier reel insertion. It was released in brown and black in the United States, and some other colors elsewhere.<ref name=model_e>{{cite web | url=http://www.viewmaster.co.uk/htm/e.asp | title=View-Master Model E - Replacement for the Model C ViewMaster | publisher=viewmaster.co.uk | access-date=2014-02-08}}</ref> It was about four inches high, five inches wide and four inches deep.

The Model F was introduced in 1958. It used [[List of battery sizes|C-cell]] batteries to power an internal lighting source. Industrial designer [[Charles "Chuck" Harrison|Chuck Harrison]] led the team designing the Model F View-Master.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jonathan Glancey |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2008/jul/31/viewmaster.design.classic |title=Classics of everyday design No 48: Jonathan Glancey on the View-Master &#124; Art and design &#124; guardian.co.uk |publisher=Guardian |date= 2008-07-31|access-date=2011-05-23 |location=London}}</ref>
[[File:View-Master Model F 01.jpg|thumb|View-Master Model F]]

[[File:Sawyer model g view-master viewer.jpg|thumb|A model G View-Master viewer from the last years of the [[Sawyer's]] era]]

===1962–present: stereoscopic toy===
The View-Master had been originally constructed from Kodak [[Tenite]] plastic and then [[Bakelite]], a hard, sturdy, somewhat heavy plastic. In 1962, lighter [[thermoplastic]]<nowiki/>versions were introduced, beginning with the Model G, a change driven by Sawyer's president Bob Brost.<ref name="View-Master"/>

In 1966, [[Sawyer's]] was acquired by the [[American IG|General Aniline & Film]] (GAF) Corporation and became a wholly owned subsidiary. Under GAF's ownership, View-Master reels began to feature fewer scenic and more child-friendly subjects, such as toys and cartoons. Television series were featured on View-Master reels, such as ''[[Doctor Who]]'' (sold only in the U.K.), ''[[Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In]]'', ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek]]'', ''[[The Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]'', ''[[Family Affair]]'', ''[[Here's Lucy]]'' and ''[[The Beverly Hillbillies]]''. Actor [[Henry Fonda]] appeared in a series of TV commercials for the GAF View-Master.<ref name="View-Master"/>

From 1970 to around 1997, GAF produced the Talking View-Master, which included audio technology along with the reels. Three major designs were produced, with increasing sophistication.<ref>{{cite web|last=Clatworthy|first=Keith|title=Talking View-Master|url=http://www.viewmaster.co.uk/htm/talking.asp|work=20th Century Stereo Viewers|access-date=12 December 2012}}</ref> In the early 1970s, GAF introduced the View-Master Rear Screen Projector, a tabletop projector that displayed images from picture wheels.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Coopee|first1=Todd|title=GAF View-Master Rear Screen Projector|url=https://toytales.ca/view-master-rear-screen-projector-1970s/|website=ToyTales.ca|date=November 6, 2017}}</ref>

In 1980, View-Master released the Show Beam Projector, a toy that combined the company's stereoscopic images and flashlight technology to produce a portable handheld projector. The Show Beam used small film cartridges that were plugged into the side of the toy. Each cartridge contained 30 full-color 2D images.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Coopee|first1=Todd|title=View-Master Show Beam Projector (1980)|url=https://toytales.ca/view-master-show-beam-projector-1980/|website=Toy Tales|date=February 24, 2020}}</ref>

In 1981, GAF sold View-Master to a group of investors headed by Arnold Thaler, and the company was reconstituted as the View-Master International Group.<ref>{{cite book |title=Toys and American Culture: An Encyclopedia |author=Scott, Sharon M. |edition=Illustrated |publisher=Greenwood |date=2010 |isbn=9780313347986 |page=330}}</ref>

In 1985, View-Master Video was introduced. Through a partnership with [[Warner Records|Warner Bros. Records]], a live-action educational video series was produced by Together Again Productions and titled ''[[Kidsongs]]'', designed for the educational market.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1985-09-18|title=WB Records Teams With View-Master on Kidvid Projects|page=44|work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]}}</ref>

View-Master International acquired the Ideal Toy Company in 1984 and became known as the View-Master Ideal Group, and the combined company was purchased by [[Tyco Toys]] in 1989.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://stereoworld.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/SW_V16_3.pdf |title=View-Master Purchased |magazine=Stereo World |volume=16 |series=3 |page=22 |date=1989 |edition=July/August |access-date=2021-11-20}}</ref> Tyco, including the View-Master Ideal Group, merged with [[Mattel]] in 1997. View-Master was assigned to Mattel's preschool division and is now marketed under the [[Fisher-Price]] imprint, with a continued emphasis on children's content.

In 1998, during the purchase of the Tyco-owned plant by [[Mattel]], the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] investigated the [[View-Master factory supply well]] for the toxic chemical [[trichloroethylene]] (TCE). The plant was closed in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/pha/PHA.asp?docid=293&pg=1#backa |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306143156/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/pha/PHA.asp?docid=293&pg=1#backa |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 6, 2010 |title=ATSDR-PHA-HC-View-Master Factory Supply Well-p1 |publisher=Atsdr.cdc.gov |access-date=2011-05-23}}</ref>

In December 2008, Mattel ceased production of the scenic reels depicting tourist attractions that were descendants of the first View-Master reels sold in 1939. However, Mattel continued to produce reels featuring animated characters.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pantagraph.com/business/article_a3136a9b-a396-5381-bc9e-fd8768f80803.html |title=View-Master 3-D travel reels head into the sunset |author=Doug Whiteman |work=pantagraph.com |access-date=5 January 2016}}</ref>

===2015–2019: Virtual reality===
[[File:Viewmaster VR set.jpg|thumb|View-Master VR set]]

In February 2015, Mattel announced a collaboration with [[Google]] to produce a new version of the View-Master called the View-Master Virtual Reality Viewer, based on [[virtual reality]] using [[smartphone]]s. The new View-Master is an implementation of the [[Google Cardboard]] VR platform and is accompanied by a [[mobile app]] built using its [[Software development kit|SDK]]. Content is displayed on a smartphone screen; the phone itself is inserted into the back of the unit. Instead of being inserted directly into the View-Master, reels are scanned using an [[augmented reality]] interface that enables access to content from the reel, such as 360-degree panoramas, 3D models and minigames.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/columnist/baig/2015/02/13/view-master--of-old-uses-google-cardboard-vr/23297205/ | newspaper=[[USA Today]] |access-date=May 30, 2015 |date=February 13, 2015 | last=Baig |first=Edward C. | title=View-Master rides Google Cardboard into virtual reality }}</ref><ref name=verge-vrviewmaster>{{cite web|title=The VR View-Master is Google Cardboard for kids|url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/10/9/9480941/mattel-view-master-vr-headset-hands-on|website=The Verge|date=October 9, 2015|access-date=10 October 2015}}</ref>

''Greenbot'' considered the View-Master to be the best low-cost Cardboard viewer, citing its build quality and comfort over models actually constructed from cardboard, but noting that the latch mechanism for securing the phone inside was not tight enough, and that there was no headphone-jack access. It was felt that the View-Master VR was "the kind of thing you might grab as a gift for the kids, but if you're curious about VR on your phone, chances are you'll use it as much as they do."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.greenbot.com/article/2995583/android/the-best-cheap-cardboard-vr-viewer-is-mattels-view-master.html |title=The best cheap Cardboard VR viewer is… Mattel's View-Master?|last=Hayward |first=Andrew |date=2015-11-05 |website=Greenbot |language=en |access-date=2018-12-24}}</ref>

In 2016, an updated iteration known as the DLX was released; it features improvements to its compatibility with smaller phones, a more secure latch for the phone compartment, and also adds focal adjustment and a headphone port.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2016/2/15/10994658/mattel-vr-view-master-dlx-upgrade |title=Mattel's upgraded View-Master VR headset now comes with extra dinosaurs |last=Vincent |first=James |date=2016-02-15 |website=The Verge |access-date=2018-12-24}}</ref>

Both editions of the View-Master VR were discontinued in November 2019, and the Experience packs can no longer be installed by new users.<ref>{{Cite web|title=View-Master™ VR Starter Pack & Deluxe VR Viewer|url=https://www.mattel.com/en-us/view-master|access-date=2020-07-17|website=www.mattel.com}}</ref>

In 2019, Mattel partnered with [[MGM]] to announce an upcoming [[feature film]] based on the View-Master. The project will be co-piloted by [[Robbie Brenner]] of Mattel's Films division and MGM's Cassidy Lange.<ref>{{cite web |title=View-Master Movie In the Works at MGM and Mattel Films (Exclusive) |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/view-master-movie-works-at-mgm-mattel-films-1191033 |website=The Hollywood Reporter |last=Kit|first=Boris|date=2019-02-27 |language=en|access-date=25 March 2019}}</ref>

===Cumulative production===
There have been some 25 viewer models, thousands of titles, and 1.5 billion reels produced. The basic design remained the same for reels and internal mechanisms, despite its long history and many changes in models and materials, ensuring that every reel will work in every model.<ref name="View-Master"/>

===Recognition===
In 1999, View-Master was part of the second year of inductees added to the [[National Toy Hall of Fame]].<ref>{{cite web|author=View-Master |url= https://www.museumofplay.org/toys/view-master/ |title=National Toy Hall of Fame |publisher=Strongmuseum.org |access-date=2023-01-16}}</ref>