Editing Vijayanagara (section)

==Location and history==
[[File:Hampi Vijayanagara in early 16th century, South India.jpg|thumb|left|Hampi Vijayanagara in early 16th century. The sacred centre featured major Hindu temples and attached markets; the urban core included the royal centre; suburban satellites were spread from what is now Gangawati to Hosapete.<ref>{{cite book|first=Anila |last=Verghese|title=Archaeology, Art and Religion: New Perspectives on Vijayanagara|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZzpAAAAMAAJ |year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-564890-4|pages=vi–viii}}</ref><ref name=morrison423>KD Morrison and CM Sinopoli (2006), ''Vijayanagara: Archaeological Explorations'', J. Fritz et al (eds.), VPR Monograph, Manohar, pages 423–434</ref>]]
Vijayanagara is located in the modern era Indian state of [[Karnataka]], along the banks of the [[Tungabhadra River]]. The city rapidly grew from being an ancient pilgrimage centre in the 13th century, to the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire in the early 14th century, and becoming a metropolis of approximately {{convert|650|km2}} by the early 16th century.<ref name=morrison423/> By 1500 CE, It became the world's second largest city, after Beijing.<ref name="Howard2011p77"/><ref name="Gier2014p11"/> Memoirs by foreigners estimate the population was about 500,000, but others find this estimate to be either generous or too conservative.<ref name="Howard2011p77"/><ref name="Gier2014p11"/><ref name=morrison423/>

The architecture of the capital, Vijayanagara, is purposely aligned with the natural features of the city from the time of Rama.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dallapiccola |first=Anna |title=Paradigms in Indian Architecture |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=9781315026923 |edition=1st |pages=141 |language=English |chapter=Gods, Patrons and Images: Stone Sculpture at Vijayanagara}}</ref> Vijayanagara was founded around the religious Hindu temple complex, Pampa Tirtha, and [[Kishkindha]] that already existed at [[Hampi]]. The name of the city centre, Hampi, is derived from Pampa, another name of goddess [[Parvati]] in Hindu theology. According to ''[[Sthala purana|Sthala Purana]]'', Parvati (Pampa) pursued her ascetic lifestyle to win over and bring ascetic Shiva back into householder life on the banks of Tungabhadra river, on Hemakuta hill, now a part of Hampi.{{sfn|Fritz|Michell|2016|pp=14-15}} Shiva is also called Pampapati ({{lit|husband of Pampa}}),{{sfn|Fritz|Michell|2016|pp=14-15}} and the river came to be known as Pampa river.<ref name="Verghese2002p6">{{harvnb|Anila Verghese|2002|pp=6–7, 40, 92}}</ref> The Sanskrit word Pampa morphed into the Kannada word Hampa, and the place Parvati pursued what she wanted came to be known as Hampe or Hampi.{{sfn|Fritz|Michell|2016|pp=14-15}}<ref name="Verghese2002p6"/><ref name=ASI>{{cite book|first=D. |last=Devakunjari|title=World Heritage Series: Hampi|publisher=Eicher Goodearth Ltd, for [[Archaeological Survey of India]]|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-87780-42-7|page=8|year=2007}}</ref> Its Hindu significance also comes from the [[Kishkindha]] chapters of the Hindu epic ''[[Ramayana]]'', where [[Rama]] and [[Lakshmana]] meet [[Hanuman]], [[Sugriva]], and the monkey army in their search for kidnapped [[Sita]]. The Hampi area has many close resemblances to the place described in the epic. Traditionally understood to be the place described in the Ramayana, the region attracts many pilgrims.<ref name="KaminskyLong2016p75">{{cite book|first1=Arnold P. |last1=Kaminsky|first2=Roger D. |last2=Long|title=Nationalism and Imperialism in South and Southeast Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aGIPDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT75|year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-99742-3|pages=75–76}}</ref>

Prior to its founding, Hindus and kings of various kingdoms visited Hampi. Hoysala Empire's [[Hindu king]]s built and supported the Hampi pilgrimage centre before the 14th century.<ref name="KaminskyLong2016p75"/><ref name=devraj112>{{cite book|first1=D. V. |last1=Devaraj |first2=C. S. |last2=Patil|title=Vijayanagara, Progress of Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=icdPjpdrkWwC|year=1987|publisher=Directorate of Archaeology & Museums|pages=112–113}}</ref><ref name="Stein1989p31">{{cite book|author=Burton Stein|title=The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpxeaYQbGDMC&pg=PA31|year=1989|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-26693-2|pages=31–32}}</ref> At the start of the 14th century, the armies of [[Delhi Sultanate]], first those of Alauddin Khalji and later of Muhammad bin Tughlaq invaded and pillaged South India. The Hoysala Empire and temple cities such as those in Halebidu, Belur and Somanathapura were plundered in early 14th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Abraham Eraly|title=The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT155|year=2015|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-93-5118-658-8|pages=155–157}}</ref><ref name="Dalal2002p195">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Puffin History of India for Children, 3000 BC – AD 1947|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2gRUVIF2joC |year=2002|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-333544-3|page=195}}</ref><ref name="Knipe2015p38"/> From the ruins of this collapse and destruction emerged Vijayanagara Empire and its new capital Vijayanagara.<ref name="Knipe2015p38"/><ref name="Stein1989p18"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Cynthia Talbot|title=Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pfAKljlCJq0C&pg=PA281 |year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803123-9|pages=281–282}}</ref> The city was founded by [[Harihara I]] and [[Bukka]], the Sangama brothers.<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=103–106}}</ref>

[[File:Ugranarasimha statue at Hampi dtv.JPG|thumb|left|Statue of [[Narasimha|Ugranarasimha]] at [[Hampi]]]]
The city was already a sacred site of pilgrimage for devotees of [[Shiva]] in the 10th century. It became the most powerful urban centre in the Deccan between 14th to 16th centuries and one of the ten largest cities of the world. The Renaissance Portuguese and Persian traders reported it as a marvellous achievement.<ref name=Springer>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_MsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA200|title=Landscapes and Landforms of India|first=Vishwas S. |last=Kale|publisher=Springer Science+Business Media|year=2014|page=200|isbn=9789401780292}}</ref>

The city was a powerful urban centre in South India from 14th to 16th century and one of the ten largest cities of the world. It stood as a bastion of Hindu values dedicated to fighting back the encroachments of the Muslim sultans from the north, who soon came to be operating from [[Golkonda]].<ref name=Springer/> The [[Sangama dynasty]] was involved in repeated conflicts with the [[Bahamani Sultanate]]. The Bahamanis had later disintegrated into [[Deccan sultanates|five sultanates]] which formed a Deccan alliance. [[Krishnadevaraya]] after the [[Battle of Raichur]] allowed one sultan to stay in power rather than let it split into smaller kingdoms. However, later Vijayanagara kings had to contend with multiple Sultanates to their north.<ref name="William J. Jackson 2002 209">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QymrCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA209|title=Vijayanagara Voices: Exploring South Indian History and Hindu Literature|first=William J. |last=Jackson|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|pages=209|isbn=9781317001935}}</ref> The Vijayanagara kingdom befriended and allowed the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] to [[Portuguese conquest of Goa|take control of Goa]] and western territories of the Bahamani Sultanate. The sultanates united against the Vijayanagara Empire.<ref name="George Childs Kohn 2013 526">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qTDfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA526|title=Dictionary of Wars|first=George Childs |last=Kohn|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|pages=526|isbn=9781135954949}}</ref>

An ongoing war between Muslim Sultanates and the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire led to the [[Battle of Talikota]] in 1565 CE, fought about {{convert|175|km}} north. It resulted in the capture and beheading of Vijayanagara leader [[Aliya Rama Raya]], mass confusion within the Vijayanagara forces and a shock defeat.<ref name=kulke191/>{{sfn|Eaton|2006|pp=96–101}}<ref name="William J. Jackson 2002 209"/>  The Sultanate army then reached Vijayanagara, looted, destroyed and burnt it down to ruins over a period of several months. This is evidenced by the quantities of charcoal, the heat-cracked basements and burnt architectural pieces found by archaeologists in Vijayanagara region. The urban Vijayanagara was abandoned and remained in ruins ever since.{{sfn|Fritz|Michell|2016|p=23}}<ref name="Lycett 2013 433–470"/><ref>{{cite journal | last=Verghese | first=Anila | title=Deities, cults and kings at Vijayanagara | journal=World Archaeology | volume=36 | issue=3 | year=2004 | doi=10.1080/1468936042000282726812a | pages=416–431| s2cid=162319660 }}</ref> Vijayanagara never recovered from the ruins.<ref name="George Childs Kohn 2013 526"/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XfPgtl6PgwoC&pg=PA29|title=Archaeologies of Memory|first1=Ruth M. |last1=Van Dyke |first2=Susan E. |last2=Alcock |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2008|pages=29|isbn=9781405143301}}</ref>

The Italian [[Cesare Federici]] writing two years after the empire's defeat states that "The Citie of Bezeneger (Vijayanagara) is not altogether destroyed, yet the houses stand still, but empty, and there is dwelling in them nothing, as is reported, but Tygres and other wild beasts."<ref name=Arizona/>

Archaeological evidence suggests that while the urban settlement was abandoned, a number of rural settlement in the metropolitan region were not fully emptied. Some population remained in the region (though there is no good assessment of how much), and a number of settlements founded in the Vijayanagara period remain occupied up to the present.<ref name=Arizona/>

The ruins of the city were brought to light in the early 19th century by [[Orientalism|orientalist]] [[Colin Mackenzie|Colonel Colin Mackenzie]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vijayanagara Research Project at the British Library |url=https://blogs.bl.uk/asian-and-african/2019/04/vijayanagara-research-project-at-the-british-library.html#:~:text=Colin%20MacKenzie%E2%80%99s%20survey |access-date=2025-05-06 |website=blogs.bl.uk |language=en}}</ref>