Editing VisiCalc (section)

==History==
{{blockquote|VISICALC represented a new idea of a way to use a computer and a new way of thinking about the world. Where conventional programming was thought of as a sequence of steps, this new thing was no longer sequential in effect: When you made a change in one place, all other things changed instantly and automatically.
|author=[[Ted Nelson]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/Whole_Earth_Software_Catalog_for_1986_1985_Point/Whole_Earth_Software_Catalog_for_1986_1985_Point_djvu.txt|title=Whole Earth Software Catalog|year=1989|isbn=9780385233019|last1=Brand|first1=Stewart|publisher=Quantum Press/Doubleday }}</ref>}}

[[Dan Bricklin]] conceived of VisiCalc while watching a presentation at [[Harvard Business School]] (HBS). The professor was creating a financial model on a blackboard that was ruled with vertical and horizontal lines (resembling accounting paper) to create a table, and he wrote formulas and data into the cells. When the professor found an error or wanted to change a parameter, he had to erase and rewrite several sequential entries in the table. Bricklin realized that he could replicate the process on a computer using an "electronic spreadsheet" to view results of underlying formulae.<ref>{{Cite web|date=September 25, 2006|title=VisiCalc and the Rise of the Apple II|url=https://lowendmac.com/2006/visicalc-and-the-rise-of-the-apple-ii/|access-date=August 8, 2021|website=Low End Mac|language=en-US|archive-date=June 9, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609234748/http://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/visicalc-origin-bricklin.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Although a HBS professor warned Bricklin that large computers already had much [[financial modeling]] software,{{r|rumelt2003}} [[Bob Frankston]] joined Bricklin at 231 Broadway, [[Arlington, Massachusetts]]. The pair formed the [[Software Arts]] company, and developed the VisiCalc program in two months during the winter of 1978–79.  Bricklin wrote:
{{blockquote|with the years of experience we had at the time we created VisiCalc, we were familiar with many row/column financial programs. In fact, Bob had worked since the 1960s at [[Interactive Data Corporation]], a major [[time-sharing|timesharing]] utility that was used for some of them and I was exposed to some at Harvard Business School in one of the classes.}}

Bricklin was referring to the variety of [[report generator]]s that were in use at that time, including Business Planning Language (BPL) from International Timesharing Corporation (ITS) and Foresight from Foresight Systems. However, these earlier timesharing programs were not completely interactive, and they pre-dated personal computers. Frankston and Bricklin took a bank loan to purchase a [[Prime Computer|Prime]] minicomputer, on which they wrote the development tools (editor, assembler, linker) they used to write VisiCalc.<ref>http://www.bricklin.com/history/saiproduct1.htm</ref>

Frankston described VisiCalc as a "magic sheet of paper that can perform calculations and recalculations [which] allows the user to just solve the problem using familiar tools and concepts". The [[VisiCorp|Personal Software]] company began selling VisiCalc in mid-1979 for under {{US$|100|1979|round=-1}}, after a demonstration at the fourth [[West Coast Computer Faire]] and an official launch on June&nbsp;4 at the [[National Computer Conference]]. It requires an Apple II with 32K of [[random-access memory]] (RAM), and supports saving files to magnetic [[tape cassette]] or to the [[Disk II|Apple Disk II]] floppy disk system.<ref name = "InfoWorld Jun 1979">{{Cite journal |title=VisiCalc: User-Defined Problem Solving Package |journal=The Intelligent Machines Journal |volume=1 |issue=9 |page=22 <!-- | publisher = InfoWorld Media Group NOT IN MASTHEAD--> |date=June 11, 1979 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Gj4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA22 |issn=0199-6649 |quote=The formal introduction of VisiCalc is scheduled for the National Computer Conference, being held June 4–7, in New York City.}}</ref>

Many in the microcomputer industry had expected that their products would grow in power until they could run the large software library available for [[minicomputers]], but VisiCalc had no equivalent on bigger computers. It had functionality similar to financial modeling languages that cost $20,000, but did not require learning a language.{{r|rumelt2003}} VisiCalc was unusually easy to use and came with excellent documentation. Apple's developer documentation cited the software as an example of one with a simple user interface.<ref name="apple1982">{{cite book |last1=Meyers |first1=Joe |last2=Tognazzini |first2=Bruce |title=Apple IIe Design Guidelines |pages=22 |publisher=Apple Computer |url=http://www.apple2scans.net/files/1982-A2F2116-m-a2e-aiiedg.pdf |year=1982 |access-date=March 11, 2014 |archive-date=September 23, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172720/http://www.apple2scans.net/files/1982-A2F2116-m-a2e-aiiedg.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{r|aw1984}} Benefiting from personal computers' interactivity, the software uses the familiar metaphor of locations on a spreadsheet and invites iterative development. As a general-purpose application it does not force a particular solution,{{r|rumelt2003}} and is usable for almost any purpose.{{r|8-Bit Product Reviews: VISICALC}} Observers immediately noticed its power. Noting how those new to computers quickly learned the application, [[Ben Rosen]] speculated in July 1979 that "VisiCalc could someday become the software tail that wags (and sells) the personal computer dog".{{r|mcmullen19840221}}<ref name="brandel19990802">{{Cite magazine |last=Brandel |first=Mary |date=August 2, 1999 |title=PC Software Transforms The PC |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9gIPuja3CoEC&pg=PA62 |magazine=PC Magazine |page=62 |access-date=October 3, 2020 |archive-date=October 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019070622/https://books.google.com/books?id=9gIPuja3CoEC&pg=PA62 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="rumelt2003">{{Cite book |last=Rumelt |first=Richard P. |author-link=Richard Rumelt |url=https://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/dick.rumelt/Docs/Cases/Visicorp.pdf |title=VisiCorp 1978-1984 (Revised) |publisher=The Anderson School at UCLA |year=2003 |id=POL-2003-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031101141127/https://www.anderson.ucla.edu/faculty/dick.rumelt/Docs/Cases/Visicorp.pdf |archive-date=2003-11-01}}</ref>

=== Killer app ===
Rosen was correct. For the first 12 months VisiCalc was only available for Apple II, and became its [[killer app]].{{r|budge19800708}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Harford |first=Tim |title=How computing's first 'killer app' changed everything |date=May 22, 2019 |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-47802280 |access-date=May 22, 2019 |archive-date=May 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522101910/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-47802280 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=Nintendo's Leap into the Unknown |page=15 |issue=23 |magazine=[[Next Generation (magazine)|Next Generation]] |publisher=[[Imagine Media]] |date=November 1996}}</ref> [[John Markoff]] wrote that the computer was sold as a "VisiCalc accessory";<ref name="markoff19820705">{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MjAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA36 |title=Radio Shack: set apart from the rest of the field |work=InfoWorld |date=July 5, 1982 |access-date=February 10, 2015 |author=Markoff, John |pages=36 |archive-date=October 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019070622/https://books.google.com/books?id=MjAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA36 |url-status=live }}</ref> many bought {{US$|2000|1979|long=no|round=-2}} Apple computers to run the $100 software<ref name="mcmullen19840221">{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCIvSU6Y2GAC&pg=PA120 |title=Apple Charts The Course For IBM |work=PC Magazine |date=February 21, 1984 |access-date=October 24, 2013 |author1=McMullen, Barbara E. |author2=John F. |name-list-style=amp |pages=122 |archive-date=October 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019070622/https://books.google.com/books?id=UCIvSU6Y2GAC&pg=PA120 |url-status=live }}</ref> — more than 25% of those sold in 1979 were reportedly for VisiCalc{{r|brandel19990802}} — even if they already owned other computers.<ref name="barry19811005">{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JT0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA30 |title=SuperCalc Spread-Sheet Simulator from Sorcim Corp. |work=InfoWorld |date=October 5, 1981 |access-date=January 1, 2015 |author=Barry, Tim |pages=30 |archive-date=October 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019070622/https://books.google.com/books?id=JT0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA30 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Steve Wozniak]] said that small businesses, not the hobbyists he and [[Steve Jobs]] had expected, purchased 90% of Apple IIs.<ref name="byte198501">{{cite news |url= https://archive.org/details/BYTE_Vol_10-01_1985-01_Through_The_Hourglass/page/n167 |title=The Apple Story / Part 2: More History and the Apple III |work=BYTE |date=January 1985 |access-date=October 26, 2013 |author1=Williams, Gregg |author2=Moore, Rob |pages=166 |type=interview}}</ref> Apple's rival [[Tandy Corporation]] used VisiCalc on Apple IIs at their headquarters.<ref name="reed">{{cite web |url=http://www.trs-80.org/visicalc/ |title=VisiCalc |publisher=TRS-80.org |access-date=January 23, 2015 |author=Reed, Matthew |archive-date=January 28, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128132939/http://www.trs-80.org/visicalc/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Other software supports its [[Data Interchange Format]] (DIF) to share data.{{r|aw1984}} One example is the [[Microsoft BASIC]] interpreter supplied with most microcomputers that ran VisiCalc. This allowed skilled BASIC programmers to write features, such as trigonometric functions, that VisiCalc lacked.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Bricklin and Frankston originally intended to fit the program into 16k memory, but they later realized that the program needed at least 32k. Even 32k is too small to support some features that the creators wanted to include, such as a split screen for text and graphics. However, Apple eventually began shipping all Apple IIs with 48k memory following a drop in RAM prices, enabling the developers to include more features. The initial release supported tape cassette storage, but that was quickly dropped.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

At VisiCalc's release, Personal Software promised to port the program to other computers, starting with those with the [[MOS Technology 6502]] microprocessor,{{r|InfoWorld Jun 1979}} and versions appeared for [[Atari 8-bit computers]] and [[Commodore PET]]. Both of those were easy, because those computers have the same [[CPU]] as Apple II, and large portions of code were reused. The PET version, which contains two separate [[executable]]s for 40 and 80-column models, was widely criticized for having a very small amount of worksheet space due to the developers' inclusion of their own custom DOS, which uses a large amount of memory.<ref>https://museum.syssrc.com/artifact/800/</ref> The PET only has 32k versus Apple II's available 48k.

Other ports followed for [[Apple III]], the [[Zilog Z80]]-based Tandy [[TRS-80 Model I]], [[TRS-80 Model II|Model II]], [[TRS-80 Model III|Model III]], [[TRS-80 Model 4|Model 4]], and [[Sony SMC-70]]. The TRS-80 Model I and Sony SMC-70 ports are the only versions of VisiCalc without [[copy protection]]. The HP 125 and Sony SMC-70 ports are the only [[CP/M]] version. Most versions are disk-based, but the PET VisiCalc came with a [[dongle|ROM chip]] that the user must install in one of the motherboard's expansion ROM sockets. The most important port is for the [[IBM PC]], and VisiCalc became one of the first commercial packages available when the IBM PC shipped in 1981.{{r|reed}} It quickly became a best-seller on this platform, though severely limited to be compatible with the versions for the 8-bit platforms. It is estimated that 300,000 copies were sold on the PC, bringing total sales to about 1 million copies.<ref name="langdell19850806">{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zvLd5Aw2T3YC&pg=PA33 |title=VisiCalc Production Ends |work=PC Magazine |date=August 6, 1985 |access-date=October 28, 2013 |author=Langdell, James |pages=33 |archive-date=October 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019070622/https://books.google.com/books?id=zvLd5Aw2T3YC&pg=PA33 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Personal Software renamed itself VisiCorp in 1982.{{r|rumelt2003}} By that year, VisiCalc's price had risen from $100 to {{US$|250|1982|long=no|round=-1}}.<ref name="tommervik198203">{{cite news |url=http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year=1982&pub=6&id=4 |title=What Price Software? / Part 2 of The Great Arcade/Computer Controversy |work=Softline |date=March 1982 |access-date=July 15, 2014 |author=Tommervik, Allan |pages=10 |archive-date=July 17, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717083435/http://www.cgwmuseum.org/galleries/index.php?year=1982&pub=6&id=4 |url-status=live }}</ref> Several competitors appeared in the market, such as [[SuperCalc]]{{r|barry19811005}} and [[Multiplan]],{{r|caruso19840402}} each of which have more features and corrected deficiencies in VisiCalc, but could not overcome its market dominance.

=== Decline ===
A more dramatic change occurred with the 1983 launch of [[Lotus Development Corporation]]'s [[Lotus 1-2-3]], created by former Personal Software/VisiCorp employee [[Mitch Kapor]], who had written VisiTrend and VisiPlot. Unlike the IBM PC version of VisiCalc, 1-2-3 was written to take full advantage of the PC's increased memory, screen, and performance. Yet it was designed to be as compatible as possible with VisiCalc, including the menu structure, to allow VisiCalc users to easily migrate to 1-2-3.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

1-2-3 was almost immediately successful, and in 1984, ''[[InfoWorld]]'' wrote that sales of VisiCalc were "rapidly declining", stating, that it was "the first successful software product to have gone through a complete [[software life cycle|life cycle]], from conception in 1978 to introduction in 1979 to peak success in 1982 to decline in 1983 to a probable death according to industry insiders in 1984". The magazine added that the company was slow to upgrade the software, in part due to the choice to focus their update on the ill-fated [[Apple III]]; the Advanced Version of VisiCalc for Apple III came out in 1982.<ref>https://winworldpc.com/product/visicalc/advanced-apple-iii</ref> Only in 1983 did a version come out for Apple II, with a version for the IBM PC being announced (but not delivered) in 1984.<ref name="caruso19840402">{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kC4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA80 |title=Company Strategies Boomerang |work=InfoWorld |date=April 2, 1984 |access-date=February 10, 2015 |author=Caruso, Denise |pages=80–83 |archive-date=October 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019070623/https://books.google.com/books?id=kC4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA80 |url-status=live }}</ref> VisiCorp sued Software Arts in September 1983; the lawsuit and countersuit focused on the VisiCalc trademark. The two companies settled in September 1984; VisiCorp paid $500,000 in royalties to Software Arts, which received the VisiCalc trademark but not rights to the "Visi" prefix. VisiCorp could continue to use "Visi" with other software.{{r|rumelt2003}} By 1985, VisiCorp was insolvent. [[Lotus Development]] acquired Software Arts, and ended sales of the application.<ref name="langdell19850806"/>

===Releases===
{{expand-section|date=May 2025}}
=== VisiCalc ===
* 1979: Apple II
* 1980: Apple III, TRS-80 Model III, Apple II, IBM PC, TRS-80 Model 2, PET CBM-80, HP 125, Atari 8-bit
* 1981: IBM PC, Sony SMC-70

=== VisiCalc Advanced ===
* 1982: Apple III<ref name="bricklin">http://www.bricklin.com/history/sailater.htm</ref>
* 1983: Apple IIe<ref name="bricklin"/>
* 1983: TRS-80 Model 4,<ref>{{cite web |title=1984 Radio Shack Computer Catalog RSC-10 page 21 |url=http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/html/catalogs_extra/1984_rsc-10/h021.html |website=Radio Shack Catalogs dot com |publisher=Tandy/Radio Shack |access-date=May 1, 2019 |archive-date=October 3, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141003154400/http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/html/catalogs_extra/1984_rsc-10/h021.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Model II (with RAM expansion card) and Model 16.<ref>{{cite web |title=1983 Radio Shack Computer Catalog RSC-8 page 10 |url=http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/html/catalogs_extra/1983_rsc-08/h010.html |website=Radio Shack Catalogs dot com |publisher=Tandy/Radio Shack |access-date=May 1, 2019 |archive-date=June 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190630181659/http://www.radioshackcatalogs.com/html/catalogs_extra/1983_rsc-08/h010.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Used banked memory beyond the base 64 KB.
* 1984: IBM PC<ref>https://winworldpc.com/product/visicalc/advanced-ibm</ref>