Editing Whistleblowing (section)

==Overview==
===Origin of term===
U.S. [[Civil activist|civic activist]] [[Ralph Nader]] is said to have coined the phrase in the early 1970s<ref>See: New Scientist 9 December 1971, p. 69: "The Code [of Good Conduct of The British Computer Society] contains secrecy clauses that effectively prohibit Nader style whistle-blowing"</ref>  in order to avoid the negative connotations found in other words such as "informer" and "snitch".<ref>Nader, Petkas, and Blackwell, Whistleblowing (1972).</ref> However, the origins of the word date back to the 19th century.

The word is linked to the use of a whistle to alert the public or a crowd about such problems as the commission of a crime or the breaking of rules during a game. The phrase ''whistle blower'' attached itself to [[Law enforcement|law enforcement officials]] in the 19th century because they used a whistle to alert the public or fellow police.<ref name="Meaning and origin">{{cite web|title=The meaning and origin of the expression: Whistle-blower|url=http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/whistle-blower.html|website=The Phrase Finder|publisher=Gary Martin|access-date=27 January 2017}}</ref> Sports [[referee]]s, who use a whistle to indicate an illegal or [[Foul (sports)|foul play]], also were called whistleblowers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=whistleblower+&searchmode=none |title=Etymonline.com |publisher=Etymonline.com |access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wordorigins.org/index.php/site/whistleblower/ |title=Wordorigins.org |publisher=Wordorigins.org |access-date=8 July 2012 |archive-date=29 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429004210/http://www.wordorigins.org/index.php/site/whistleblower |url-status=dead }}</ref>

An 1883 story in Wisconsin's [[The Gazette (Janesville, Wisconsin)|Janesville Gazette]] called a policeman who used his whistle to alert citizens about a riot a ''whistle blower'', without the hyphen. By the year 1963, the phrase had become a hyphenated word, ''whistle-blower''. The word began to be used by journalists in the 1960s for people who revealed wrongdoing, such as Nader. It eventually evolved into the compound word ''whistleblower''.<ref name="Meaning and origin" />

=== Channels for whistleblowing ===

==== Internal channels ====
Most whistleblowers are internal whistleblowers, who report [[misconduct]] on a fellow employee or superior within their company through anonymous reporting mechanisms often called [[hotline]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2017|isbn=978-1305500846|pages=194}}</ref> Within such situations, circumstances and factors can cause a person to either act on the spot to prevent/stop illegal and unacceptable behavior, or report it.<ref name="Rowe">{{cite journal |last1=Rowe |first1=Mary |last2=Wilcox |first2=Linda |last3=Gadlin |first3=Howard |title=Dealing with — or Reporting — "Unacceptable" Behavior* (With additional thoughts about the "Bystander Effect") |journal=Journal of the International Ombudsman Association |date=2009 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=52–64 |url=https://mitsloan.mit.edu/shared/ods/documents?PublicationDocumentID=5397}}</ref> There are some reasons to believe that people are more likely to take action with respect to unacceptable behavior, within an organization, if there are complaint systems that offer not just options dictated by the planning and control organization, but a ''choice'' of options for absolute confidentiality.<ref>Mary Rowe, "Options and choice for conflict resolution in the workplace" in ''Negotiation: Strategies for Mutual Gain'', by Lavinia Hall (ed.), Sage Publications, Inc., 1993, pp. 105–119.</ref>

Anonymous reporting mechanisms,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://corpgov.law.harvard.edu/2014/10/25/elements-of-an-effective-whistleblower-hotline/|title=Elements of an Effective Whistleblower Hotline|website=corpgov.law.harvard.edu|date=25 October 2014}}</ref> as mentioned previously, help foster a climate whereby employees are more likely to report or seek guidance regarding potential or actual wrongdoing without fear of retaliation. The coming anti-bribery management systems standard, [[ISO 37001]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail?csnumber=65034|title=ISO 37001:2016 – Anti-bribery management systems – Requirements with guidance for use|website=www.iso.org|date=9 December 2021 }}</ref> includes anonymous reporting as one of the criteria for the new standard.

==== External channels ====
External whistleblowers report misconduct to outside people or entities. In these cases, depending on the nature of the information, whistleblowers may report the misconduct to lawyers, the media, law enforcement or [[consumer protection|watchdog agencies]], or other local, state, or federal agencies. In some cases, external whistleblowing is encouraged by offering monetary rewards.

==== Third-party channels ====
Sometimes organizations use external agencies to create a secure and anonymous reporting channel for their employees, often referred to as a whistleblowing hotline. In addition to protecting the identity of the whistleblower, these services are designed to inform the individuals at the top of the organizational pyramid of misconduct, usually via integration with specialized [[case management software]].{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

Implementing a third-party solution is often the easiest way for an organization to promote compliance, or to offer a whistleblowing policy where one did not previously exist. An increasing number of companies and authorities use third-party services in which the whistleblower is also anonymous to the third-party service provider, which is made possible via toll-free phone numbers and/or web or app-based solutions that apply [[Public-key cryptography|asymmetrical encryption]].{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

=== Private versus public sectors ===

==== Private-sector whistleblowing ====
[[Private sector|Private-sector]] whistleblowing is arguably more prevalent and suppressed in society today.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Rise of the Whistleblower and the Death of Privacy Impact of 9/11 and Enron|last = Castagnera|first = James|date =Spring 2003|journal = Labor Law Journal}}</ref> An example of private sector whistleblowing is when an employee reports to someone in a higher position such as a manager or to external factors, such as their lawyer or the police. Whistleblowing in the private sector is typically not high-profile or openly discussed in major news outlets, though occasionally, third parties expose human rights violations and exploitation of workers.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Where am I wearing?|last = Timmerman|first = Kelsey|publisher = California: Wiley|year = 2012}}</ref>

Many governments attempt to protect such whistleblowers. In the United States, for example, there are organizations such as the [[United States Department of Labor]] (DOL) and laws such as the [[Sarbanes–Oxley Act|Sarbanes-Oxley Act]] and the [[United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines]] for Organizations (FSGO) that protect whistleblowers in the private sector. Thus, despite government efforts to help regulate the private sector, the employees must still weigh their options. They either expose the company and stand the moral and ethical high ground; or expose the company, lose their job, their reputation and potentially the ability to be employed again. According to a study at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], out of three hundred whistleblowers studied, sixty-nine percent had foregone that exact situation and were either fired or forced to retire after taking the ethical high ground. It is outcomes like these that make it all that much harder to accurately track the prevalence of whistleblowing in the private sector.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Case 10th Edition|publisher=O.C. Ferrell, John Fraedich, Linda Ferrell|year=2014|isbn=978-1285423715|pages=193|via=Cengage Learning}}</ref>

==== Public sector whistleblowing ====
[[File:Praha, Magistrát, konference, Libor Michálek.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Czech whistleblower [[Libor Michálek]] was fired from his position after exposing high-level corruption.]]

Public sector whistleblowing is connected to the concept of [[public service motivation]], where a public servant's [[Altruism|altruistic]] alignment to the people or communities they service overrides their adherence to their employer's rules.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Latan |first1=Hengky |last2=Chiappetta Jabbour |first2=Charbel Jose |last3=Ali |first3=Murad |last4=Lopes de Sousa Jabbour |first4=Ana Beatriz |last5=Vo-Thanh |first5=Tan |date=2023 |title=What Makes You a Whistleblower? A Multi-Country Field Study on the Determinants of the Intention to Report Wrongdoing |journal=Journal of Business Ethics |volume=183 |issue=3 |pages=885–905 |doi=10.1007/s10551-022-05089-y |issn=0167-4544 |pmc=8949648 |pmid=35350831}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Euipyo |last2=Lewis-Liu |first2=Tinganxu |last3=Khurana |first3=Shaun |last4=Lu |first4=Ming |date=2023-08-24 |title=A systematic review of the link between public service motivation and ethical outcomes |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23276665.2023.2247101 |journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Public Administration |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1080/23276665.2023.2247101 |issn=2327-6665|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This connection has been demonstrated by research in many different countries, including Poland,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Prysmakova |first1=Palina |last2=Evans |first2=Michelle D. |date=March 2022 |title=Whistleblowing Motivation and Gender: Vignette-Based Study in a Local Government |journal=Review of Public Personnel Administration |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=165–190 |doi=10.1177/0734371X20967982 |s2cid=228842548 |issn=0734-371X}}</ref> Thailand<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Potipiroon |first=Wisanupong |date=June 2024 |title=Reward Expectancy and External Whistleblowing: Testing the Moderating Roles of Public Service Motivation, Seriousness of Wrongdoing, and Whistleblower Protection |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00910260231222814 |journal=Public Personnel Management |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=309–345 |doi=10.1177/00910260231222814 |issn=0091-0260|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and the United States of America.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caillier |first=James Gerard |date=October 2017 |title=Public Service Motivation and Decisions to Report Wrongdoing in U.S. Federal Agencies: Is This Relationship Mediated by the Seriousness of the Wrongdoing |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0275074015626299 |journal=The American Review of Public Administration |volume=47 |issue=7 |pages=810–825 |doi=10.1177/0275074015626299 |issn=0275-0740|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Recognition of the value of public sector whistleblowing has been growing over the last 50 years. Many jurisdictions have passed legislation to protect public service whistleblowing in part as a way to address unethical behaviour and corruption within public service agencies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Whistleblower Laws Around the World |url=https://www.whistleblowers.org/whistleblower-laws-around-the-world/ |access-date=2024-09-28 |website=National Whistleblower Center }}</ref>

In the United States, for example, both state and [[Federal statute]]s have been put in place to protect whistleblowers from retaliation. The [[United States Supreme Court]] ruled that public sector whistleblowers are protected from retaliation by their [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] rights.<ref name="Lehman-2005">{{cite book |last1=Lehman |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Phelps |first2=Shirelle |title=West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Vol. 10 |date=2005 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |location=Detroit |isbn=9780787663773 |page=355 |edition=2}}</ref> After many federal whistleblowers were covered in high-profile media cases, laws were finally introduced to protect government whistleblowers. These laws were enacted to help prevent corruption and encourage people to expose misconduct, illegal, or dishonest activity for the good of society.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1177/009102601104000405 |title = Whistleblower Retaliation in the Public Sector|journal = Public Personnel Management|volume = 40|issue = 4|pages = 341–348|year = 2011|last1 = Lee|first1 = Katie|last2 = Kleiner|first2 = Brian|s2cid = 153833481}}</ref> People who choose to act as whistleblowers often suffer [[retaliation]] from their employer. They most likely are fired because they are an [[at-will employee]], which means they can be fired without a reason. There are exceptions in place for whistleblowers who are at-will employees. Even without a statute, numerous decisions encourage and protect whistleblowing on grounds of public policy. Statutes state that an employer shall not take any adverse employment actions against any employee in retaliation for a good-faith report of a whistleblowing action or cooperating in any way in an investigation, proceeding, or lawsuit arising under said action.<ref name="Lehman-2005" /> Federal whistleblower legislation includes a statute protecting all government employees. In the federal civil service, the government is prohibited from taking, or threatening to take, any personnel action against an employee because the employee disclosed information that they reasonably believed showed a violation of law, gross mismanagement, and gross waste of funds, abuse of authority, or a substantial and specific danger to [[public safety]] or health. To prevail on a claim, a federal employee must show that a protected disclosure was made, that the accused official knew of the disclosure, that retaliation resulted, and that there was a genuine connection between the retaliation and the employee's action.<ref name="Lehman-2005" />

====Whistleblowing in the scientific community====

Research fraud involves data, processes, or observations that were never there to begin with or later added on to fit a claim or narrative. A case involving the scientific community engaging in research fraudulence is that of [[Cyril Burt|Dr. Cyril Burt]]. Dr Cyril Burt was a British psychologist who proposed that he had discovered a [[heritable]] factor for intelligence based on studying twins.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Samelson |first=Franz |date=1997-03-01 |title=What to do about fraud charges in science; or, will the Burt affair ever end? |url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018302319394 |journal=Genetica |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=145–151 |doi=10.1023/A:1018302319394 |s2cid=263402190 |issn=1573-6857|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Oliver Gillie|Dr. Oliver Gillie]], a former colleague of Dr. Burt, inquired about Dr. Burt’s work, doubting the authenticity of the data and the certain twins on that Dr. Burt was basing his research. Dr. Gillies's inquiry revealed that there were discrepancies to Dr. Burt’s work with inconsistencies in the twin's birth dates  particularly with the absence of records for twins to participate in the study, the falsification of data, and the “invention of crucial facts to support his controversial theory that intelligence is largely inherited.” <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gillie |first=Oliver |date=1977 |title=Did Sir Cyril Burt Fake His Research on Heritability of Intelligence? Part I |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20298643 |journal=The Phi Delta Kappan |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=469–471 |jstor=20298643 |issn=0031-7217}}</ref>  This led to the eventual retraction of Dr. Burt’s work.

[[Data manipulation]] is the changing or omitting of data or outcomes in such a way that the research is not accurately portrayed in the research record. [[Hwang Woo-Suk|Dr. Hwang Woo-Suk]], a South Korean [[stem cell]] researcher gained international recognition for his groundbreaking work on cloning and stem cell research. Dr. Hwang had a claim to successfully clone human embryos and derived patient-specific stem cell lines, forwarding the field of regenerative medicine which was published in the [[Science (journal)|''Journal of Science''.]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hwang |first1=Woo Suk |last2=Roh |first2=Sung Il |last3=Lee |first3=Byeong Chun |last4=Kang |first4=Sung Keun |last5=Kwon |first5=Dae Kee |last6=Kim |first6=Sue |last7=Kim |first7=Sun Jong |last8=Park |first8=Sun Woo |last9=Kwon |first9=Hee Sun |last10=Lee |first10=Chang Kyu |last11=Lee |first11=Jung Bok |last12=Kim |first12=Jin Mee |last13=Ahn |first13=Curie |last14=Paek |first14=Sun Ha |last15=Chang |first15=Sang Sik |date=2005-06-17 |title=Patient-Specific Embryonic Stem Cells Derived from Human SCNT Blastocysts |journal=Science |volume=308 |issue=5729 |pages=1777–1783 |doi=10.1126/science.1112286 |pmid=15905366 |bibcode=2005Sci...308.1777H |s2cid=86634281 |issn=0036-8075|doi-access=free }}{{Retracted|doi=10.1126/science.1124926|pmid=16410485|http://retractionwatch.com/?s=woo+suk+hwang ''Retraction Watch''|intentional=yes}}</ref> Dr. Kim Seon-Jung expressed his concerns regarding the accuracy of the research data and the ethical conduct of the experiments. Independent committees, as well as journalists, scrutinized the research data and methodology leading to an eventual retraction of his work.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van der Heyden |first1=M. A. G. |last2=van de Derks Ven |first2=T. |last3=Opthof |first3=T. |date=2009-01-01 |title=Fraud and misconduct in science: the stem cell seduction |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03086211 |journal=Netherlands Heart Journal |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=25–29 |doi=10.1007/BF03086211 |issn=1876-6250 |pmc=2626656 |pmid=19148335}}</ref>

Ethical violations can fall under the following: altering or making up new data to meet a specific goal, adjusting how data is shown or explained, looking at data in a biased manner, and leaving out parts about data analysis and conclusions. [[Paolo Macchiarini|Dr. Paolo Macchiarini]] is well-known within the scientific community as a thoracic surgeon and former regenerative researcher. Dr Macchiarini claimed to have made profound advancements in [[trachea]] transplantation by using synthetic tracheal scaffolds planted with the patient’s own stem cells. The goal was that the stem cells would eventually provide the patient with a suitable replacement trachea.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Ethical perspectives and ramifications of the Paolo Macchiarini case |url=http://ijme.in/articles/ethical-perspectives-and-ramifications-of-the-paolo-macchiarini-case/?galley=html |access-date=2023-10-31 |journal=Indian Journal of Medical Ethics | date=2017 |doi=10.20529/ijme.2017.048 | last1=Da Silva | first1=Jaime A Teixeira | volume=2 | issue=4 | pages=270–275 | pmid=28343147 | s2cid=35776559 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> Dr. Karl-Henrik Grinnemo, a member of Dr. Machiarini’s research team, raised concerns about the accuracy of the reported results and the ethical conduct of the experiments. Dr. Macchiarini’s ethical violations include exaggeration of success, failure to disclose the adverse post-operational effects, and complications of the surgery. Patients experienced severe health problems; several died post-surgery.<ref>{{Cite web |last=hovrätt |first=Svea |date=2023-06-21 |title=Svea Court of Appeal passes its judgment in a case regarding three acts of gross assault at Karolinska Hospital in Huddinge and Solna between 2011 and 2012 |url=https://www.domstol.se/svea-hovratt/nyheter/2023/06/svea-court-of-appeal-passes-its-judgment-in-a-case-regarding-three-acts-of-gross-assault-at-karolinska-hospital-in-huddinge-and-solna-between-2011-and-2012/ |access-date=2023-10-31 |website=Svea hovrätt |language=sv}}</ref> The acts of Dr. Macchiarini led to the retractions of research articles from the [[The Lancet|Lancet]], the termination of his academic positions, and [[Criminal inquiry|criminal inquiries]] in Sweden. It also sparked concerns over the supervision and control of clinical trials utilizing experimental techniques.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

===Risks===
Individual harm, damage to public trust, and threats to national security are three categories of harm that may come as a result of whistleblowing. Revealing a whistleblower's identity can automatically put their life in danger. Some media outlets associate words like "traitor" and "treason" with whistleblowers, and in many countries around the world, the punishment for treason is the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]], even if whoever allegedly committed treason may not have caused anyone physical harm. In some instances, whistleblowers must flee their country to avoid public scrutiny, threats of death or physical harm, and in some cases criminal charges.

Whistleblowers are often protected under law from employer retaliation, but in many cases, punishment such as [[termination of employment|termination]], [[suspension (punishment)|suspension]], [[demotion]], [[wage garnishment]], and/or harsh [[mistreatment]] by other employees occurs.<ref>[[Public Concern at Work]] (2013) [http://www.pcaw.org.uk/files/Whistleblowing%20-%20the%20inside%20story%20FINAL.pdf Whistleblowing: The Inside Story – A study of the experiences of 100 whistleblowers] [[University of Greenwich]] research report</ref> A 2009 study found that up to 38% of whistleblowers experienced professional retaliation in some form, including wrongful termination.{{Citation needed|reason=previous citation of "Miceli, M. P., Near, J. P., & Dworkin, T. M. (2009). Journal of Business Ethics." didn't clearly indicate a source that supports the claim.|date=January 2017}} Following dismissal, whistleblowers may struggle to find employment due to damaged reputations, poor references, and [[blacklisting]]. The [[Socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] impact of whistleblowing through loss of livelihood and family strain may also impact whistleblowers' psychological well-being. Whistleblowers often experience immense stress as a result of litigation regarding harms such as unfair dismissal, which they often face with little or no support from unions. Whistleblowers who continue to pursue their concerns may also face long battles with official bodies such as regulators and government departments.<ref name="Eye" /><ref name="first" /> Such bodies may reproduce the "institutional silence" adopted by employers, adding to whistleblowers' stress and difficulties.<ref name="Parliament">[https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmpubacc/593/593.pdf Public Accounts Committee Report of Inquiry into Whistleblowing, Ninth Report of Session 2014–15])</ref> Thus, whistleblowers often suffer great injustice that is never acknowledged or rectified.<ref name="Lennane2" />

In a few cases, however, harm is done by the whistleblower to innocent people.<ref name="Gold-2019">{{Cite web|url=https://thewalrus.ca/the-whistle-blower-who-got-it-wrong/|title=The Whistle-blower Who Got It Wrong|last=Gold|first=Kerry|date=14 August 2019|website=The Walrus|access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> Whistleblowers can make unintentional mistakes, and investigations can be tainted by the fear of negative publicity.<ref name="Gold-2019" /> An example occurred in the [[Health Canada|Canadian health ministry]], when a new employee wrongly concluded that nearly every research contract she saw in 2012 involved malfeasance.<ref name="Gold-2019" /><ref name="British Columbia Office of the Ombudsperson-2017">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bcombudsperson.ca/documents/misfire-2012-ministry-health-employment-terminations-and-related-matters|title=Misfire: The 2012 Ministry of Health Employment Terminations and Related Matters {{!}} Office of the Ombudsperson|date=6 April 2017|website=British Columbia Office of the Ombudsperson|access-date=25 August 2019|archive-date=25 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825222942/https://www.bcombudsperson.ca/documents/misfire-2012-ministry-health-employment-terminations-and-related-matters|url-status=dead}}</ref> The result was the sudden firing of seven people, false and public threats of a criminal investigation, and the death of one researcher by suicide.<ref name="Gold-2019" /><ref name="British Columbia Office of the Ombudsperson-2017" /> The government ultimately paid the victims millions of dollars for lost pay, slander, and other harms, in addition to [[Canadian dollar|CA $]]2.41&nbsp;million spent on the subsequent 2015 investigation into the false charges.<ref name="Gold-2019" /><ref name="British Columbia Office of the Ombudsperson-2017" />

===Attitudes toward whistleblowers===
[[File:Mordechai Vanunu 2009.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Mordechai Vanunu]] spent 18 years in prison, including more than 11 in solitary confinement.]]

Whistleblowers are seen by some as selfless martyrs for public interest and organizational accountability; others view them as "traitors" or "defectors". Some even accuse them of solely pursuing personal glory and fame, or view their behavior as motivated by greed in [[qui tam]] cases.{{Citation needed|reason=By whom?|date=January 2022}}  Culturally it still has connotations of betrayal, from 'snitching' at one level to 'denunciations' at the other. Speaking out is difficult, especially in a culture where this is not promoted or even actively discouraged.<ref>{{cite web |last=McGeachie |first=SM |date=February 12, 2014 |title=How to make whistleblowing work |url=https://www.goodcorporation.com/goodblog/making-whistleblowing-work-2/ |website=Good Corporation}}</ref> Some academics (such as [[Thomas Faunce]]) feel that whistleblowers should at least be entitled to a [[rebuttable presumption]] that they are attempting to apply ethical principles in the face of obstacles and that whistleblowing would be more respected in [[governance]] systems if it had a firmer academic basis in [[virtue ethics]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1007/BF03351419|pmid = 15688511|title = Developing and teaching the virtue-ethics foundations of healthcare whistle blowing|journal = Monash Bioethics Review|volume = 23|issue = 4|pages = 41–55|year = 2004|last1 = Faunce|first1 = Thomas|ssrn=1408402|s2cid = 1416298}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |pmid = 17970253|year = 2007|last1 = Faunce|first1 = T. A.|title = Whistleblowing and scientific misconduct: Renewing legal and virtue ethics foundations|journal = Medicine and Law|volume = 26|issue = 3|pages = 567–84|last2 = Jefferys|first2 = S.|ssrn=1406286}}</ref>

It is likely that many people do not even consider whistleblowing not only because of fear of retaliation but also because of fear of losing relationships both at and outside work.<ref>Rowe, Mary & Bendersky, Corinne, "Workplace Justice, Zero Tolerance and Zero Barriers: Getting People to Come Forward in Conflict Management Systems," in ''Negotiations and Change, From the Workplace to Society'', Thomas Kochan and Richard Locke (eds), Cornell University Press, 2002. See also "Dealing with&nbsp;— or Reporting&nbsp;— 'Unacceptable' Behavior (With additional thoughts about the 'Bystander Effect')" ©2009Mary Rowe MIT, Linda Wilcox HMS, Howard Gadlin NIH, ''Journal of the International Ombudsman Association'' 2(1), online at [http://www.ombudsassociation.org/publications/journal/ ombudsassociation.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090504071949/http://www.ombudsassociation.org/publications/journal/ |date=4 May 2009 }}</ref>

Persecution of whistleblowers has become a serious issue in many parts of the world:

<blockquote>
Employees in academia, business or government might become aware of serious risks to health and the environment, but internal policies might pose threats of retaliation to those who report these early warnings. Private company employees in particular might be at risk of being fired, demoted, denied raises and so on for bringing environmental risks to the attention of appropriate authorities. Government employees could be at a similar risk for bringing threats to health or the environment to public attention, although perhaps this is less likely.<ref name=late>{{cite web |url=http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/late-lessons-2 |title=Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation: Full Report |author=European Environment Agency) |date=January 23, 2013 |page=614 }}</ref>
</blockquote>

There are examples of "early warning scientists" being harassed for bringing inconvenient truths about impending harm to the notice of the public and authorities.<ref>{{cite book |last1=European Environment Agency Report |title=Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation |date=23 January 2013 |publisher=European Environment Agency |isbn=978-92-9213-356-6 |page=581 |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/late-lessons-2 |access-date=13 May 2021}}</ref> There have also been cases of young scientists being discouraged from entering controversial scientific fields for fear of [[harassment]].<ref name=late/>

In order to help whistleblowers, private organizations have formed whistleblower [[legal defense fund]]s or support groups. Examples include the [[National Whistleblower Center]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.whistleblowers.org/ |title=whistleblowers.org |publisher=whistleblowers.org |access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref> in the United States and Whistleblowers UK<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wbuk.org/ |title=wbuk.org |publisher=wbuk.org |access-date=30 January 2017}}</ref> and [[Public Concern at Work]] (PCaW)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcaw.co.uk |title=pcaw.co.uk |publisher=pcaw.co.uk |access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref> in the United Kingdom. Depending on the circumstances, it is not uncommon for whistleblowers to be ostracized by their coworkers, discriminated against by future potential employers, or even fired from their organization. A campaign directed at whistleblowers with the goal of eliminating them from the organization is referred to as [[mobbing]]. It is an extreme form of [[workplace bullying]] wherein the group is set against the targeted individual.<ref>Matthiesen SB, Bjorkelo B, Burke RJ "Workplace Bullying as the Dark Side of Whistleblowing" in Bullying and Harassment in the Workplace: Developments in Theory, Research, and Practice (2012)</ref>

===Psychological impact===
There is limited research on the psychological impacts of whistle-blowing. However, poor experiences with whistleblowing can cause a prolonged and prominent assault on the well-being of the whistleblower. As workers attempt to address concerns, they are often met with a wall of silence and hostility by management or colleagues.<ref>Drew D (29 January 2015) [https://www.theguardian.com/healthcare-network/2015/jan/29/francis-review-nhs-whistleblower-report Francis NHS whistleblower report: a new beginning?] The Guardian</ref> [[Major depressive disorder|Depression]] is often reported by whistleblowers, and [[suicidal thoughts]] may occur in up to about 10%.<ref>Farnsworth CH (22 February 1987) [https://www.nytimes.com/1987/02/22/us/survey-of-whistle-blowers-finds-retaliation-but-few-regrets.html Survey of Whistleblowers finds retaliation, but few regrets] The New York Times</ref><ref name="Lennane">{{Cite journal |pmc = 1678979|year = 1993|last1 = Lennane|first1 = K. J.|title = "Whistleblowing": A health issue|journal = British Medical Journal |volume = 307|issue = 6905|pages = 667–670|pmid = 8401056|doi = 10.1136/bmj.307.6905.667}}</ref> General deterioration in health and self-care has been described.<ref>Greaves R, McGlone JK (2012) [http://www.socialmedicine.info/socialmedicine/index.php/socialmedicine/article/view/584 The Health Consequences of Speaking Out] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109090840/http://www.socialmedicine.info/socialmedicine/index.php/socialmedicine/article/view/584 |date=9 November 2019 }} Social Medicine Vol 6, No 4 P259-263</ref> The range of symptomatology shares many of the features of [[posttraumatic stress disorder]], though there is debate about whether the trauma experienced by whistleblowers meets diagnostic thresholds.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1108/02683941311321178 |title = Workplace bullying after whistleblowing: Future research and implications|journal = Journal of Managerial Psychology|volume = 28|issue = 3|pages = 306–323|year = 2013|last1 = Bjørkelo|first1 = Brita|hdl = 11250/174696|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Increased [[Occupational stress|stress]]-related physical illness has also been described in whistleblowers.<ref name="Lennane" /><ref>Lennane J (17 November 1995) [https://documents.uow.edu.au/~bmartin/dissent/documents/Lennane_canary.html The canary down the mine: what whistleblowers' health tells us about their environment] Paper given at Department of Criminology, Melbourne University, conference: "Whistleblowers: protecting the nation's conscience?"</ref>

The stresses involved in whistleblowing can be huge and may deter whistleblowing out of fear of failure and reprisals.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.7748/ns2014.02.28.24.14.s19 | pmid=24517665| title=Survey highlights slow progress in increasing staff whistleblowing| journal=Nursing Standard| volume=28| issue=24| pages=14–15| year=2014| last1=Sprinks| first1=Jennifer}}</ref> Some whistleblowers speak of overwhelming and persistent distress, drug and alcohol problems, [[paranoid]] behavior at work, acute [[anxiety (mood)|anxiety]], [[nightmares]], [[Flashback (psychology)|flashbacks]], and [[intrusive thoughts]].<ref name="Peters">{{Cite journal |last1=Peters |first1=K. |last2=Luck |first2=L. |last3=Hutchinson |first3=M. |last4=Wilkes |first4=L. |last5=Andrew |first5=S. |last6=Jackson |first6=D. |year=2011 |title=The emotional sequelae of whistleblowing: Findings from a qualitative study |url=https://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2143&context=hahs_pubs |journal=Journal of Clinical Nursing |volume=20 |issue=19–20 |pages=2907–14 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2702.2011.03718.x |pmid=21627700|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This fear may indeed be justified because an individual who feels threatened by whistleblowing may plan the career destruction of the "complainant" by reporting fictitious errors or rumors.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1002/pnp.344|title = Tackling psychopathy: A necessary competency in leadership development?|journal = Progress in Neurology and Psychiatry|volume = 18|issue = 5|pages = 4–6|year = 2014|last1 = De Silva|first1 = Prasanna|doi-access = free}}</ref> This technique, labelled as "[[gaslighting]]", is a common approach used by organizations to manage employees who cause difficulty by raising concerns.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1192/bjp.131.5.533 | pmid=588872| title=The Gaslight Phenomenon—An Institutional Variant| journal=British Journal of Psychiatry| volume=131| issue=5| pages=533–534| year=1977| last1=Lund| first1=C. A.| last2=Gardiner| first2=A. Q.| s2cid=33671694}}</ref> In extreme cases, this technique involves the organization or manager proposing that the complainant's mental health is unstable.<ref name="Lennane2">Lennane J (May 2012) [http://www.bmartin.cc/dissent/documents/Lennane_what2.pdf What Happens to Whistleblowers and Why] Classics in Social Medicine Vol6 No4 P249-258</ref> Organizations also often attempt to [[ostracize]] and [[Isolation to facilitate abuse|isolate]] whistleblowers by [[Social undermining|undermining]] their concerns by suggesting that they are groundless, carrying out inadequate investigations, or ignoring them altogether. Whistleblowers may also be disciplined, suspended, and reported to professional bodies upon manufactured pretexts.<ref name="Eye">Bousfield A (9 December 2011) [http://medicalharm.org/uncategorized/the-full-21-ways-to-skin-a-whistleblower/ 21 Ways To Skin An NHS Whistleblower] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322031225/http://medicalharm.org/uncategorized/the-full-21-ways-to-skin-a-whistleblower/ |date=22 March 2017 }} Medical Harm</ref><ref name="first">[[Patients First (advocacy group)|Patients First]] (23 Oct 2013) [http://www.patientsfirst.org.uk/?p=806 The Life Cycle of the Whistleblower])</ref>

Such extreme experiences of threat and loss inevitably cause severe distress and sometimes mental illness, sometimes lasting for years afterwards. This mistreatment also deters others from coming forward with concerns. Thus, poor practices remain hidden behind a wall of silence, and prevent any organization from experiencing the improvements that may be afforded by intelligent failure.<ref name="Peters" /><ref name="Parliament" /> Some whistleblowers who break ranks with their organizations have had their mental stability questioned, such as [[Adrian Schoolcraft]], the [[NYPD]] veteran who alleged falsified crime statistics in his department and was forcibly committed to a mental institution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2010/10/cop-nypd-psych-ward-whistleblowing/|title=Cop hauled off to psych ward after alleging fake crime stats|website=www.rawstory.com|date=10 October 2010|access-date=8 December 2014|archive-date=9 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109172632/http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2010/10/cop-nypd-psych-ward-whistleblowing/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Conversely, the emotional strain of a whistleblower investigation is devastating to the accused's family.<ref name="tbo.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.tbo.com/list/news-opinion-commentary/william-mcraven-a-warriors-career-sacrificed-for-politics-20160424/|title=William McRaven: A warrior's career sacrificed for politics|date=24 April 2016|access-date=27 April 2016|archive-date=25 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125041944/https://www.tbo.com/list/news-opinion-commentary/william-mcraven-a-warriors-career-sacrificed-for-politics-20160424/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Ethics===
Ethics is the set of moral principles that govern a person's or group's behavior. Deeper questions and theories of whistleblowing and why people choose to do so can be studied through an ethical approach. Whistleblowing is a topic of several myths and inaccurate definitions. Leading arguments in the ideological camp maintain that whistleblowing is the most basic of ethical traits and simply telling the truth to stop illegal harmful activities or fraud against the government/taxpayers.<ref name="Delmas2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Delmas |first1=Candice |year=2015 |title=The Ethics of Government Whistleblowing |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/DELTEO-20 |journal=Social Theory and Practice |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=77–105 |doi=10.5840/soctheorpract20154114 |jstor=24332319|s2cid=146469089 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alford |first1=C. Fred |year=2001 |title=Whistleblowers and the Narrative of Ethics |journal=Journal of Social Philosophy |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=402–418 |doi=10.1111/0047-2786.00103}}</ref> In the opposite camp, many corporations and corporate or government leaders see whistleblowing as being disloyal for breaching confidentiality, especially in industries that handle sensitive client or patient information.<ref name="Delmas2015" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Firtko |first1=A. |last2=Jackson |first2=D. |year=2005 |title=Do the ends justify the means? Nursing and the dilemma of whistleblowing |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7280254 |journal=The Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=51–6 |pmid=16496818 |hdl=10822/979112}}</ref> Hundreds of laws grant protection to whistleblowers, but stipulations can easily cloud that protection and leave them vulnerable to retaliation and sometimes even threats and physical harm. However, the decision and action has become far more complicated with recent advancements in technology and communication.<ref name="Delmas2015" />

The ethical implications of whistleblowing can be negative as well as positive. Some have argued that public sector whistleblowing plays an important role in the democratic process by resolving [[principal–agent problem]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Coyne|first1=Christopher J.|last2=Goodman|first2=Nathan|last3=Hall|first3=Abigail R.|date=22 December 2018|title=Sounding the Alarm: The Political Economy of Whistleblowing in the US Security State|url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/journals/peps/25/1/article-20180024.xml|journal=Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy|volume=25|issue=1|doi=10.1515/peps-2018-0024|s2cid=158778276|url-access=subscription}}</ref> However, sometimes employees may blow the whistle as an act of revenge. [[Rosemary O'Leary]] explains this in her short volume on a topic called guerrilla government. "Rather than acting openly, guerrillas often choose to remain "in the closet", moving clandestinely behind the scenes, salmon swimming upstream against the current of power. Over the years, I have learned that the motivations driving guerrillas are diverse. The reasons for acting range from the [[altruistic]] (doing the right thing) to the seemingly petty (I was passed over for that promotion). Taken as a whole, their acts are as awe-inspiring as saving human lives out of a love of humanity and as trifling as slowing the issuance of a report out of spite or anger."<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Ethics of Dissent: Managing Guerrilla Government|last = O'Leary|first = Rosemary|publisher = CQ|year = 2006|location = Washington D.C.}}</ref> For example, of the more than 1,000 whistleblower complaints that are filed each year with the [[Office of the Inspector General of the United States Army|Pentagon's Inspector General]], about 97 percent are not substantiated.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2016/04/25/commander-of-bin-laden-raid-blasts-senate-for-disrespecting-military-leaders/|title=Commander of bin Laden raid blasts Senate for disrespecting military leaders|newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref> It is believed throughout the professional world that an individual is bound to secrecy within their work sector. Discussions of whistleblowing and employee loyalty usually assume that the concept of loyalty is irrelevant to the issue or more commonly, that whistleblowing involves a moral choice that pits the loyalty that an employee owes an employer against the employee's responsibility to serve the public interest.<ref name="Larmer-1992">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1007/BF00872319 | title=Whistleblowing and employee loyalty| journal=Journal of Business Ethics| volume=11| issue=2| pages=125–128| year=1992| last1=Larmer| first1=Robert A.|jstor=25072254|hdl=10822/853647| s2cid=145249571| url=https://philarchive.org/rec/LARWAE}}</ref> Robert A. Larmer describes the standard view of whistleblowing in the ''[[Journal of Business Ethics]]'' by explaining that an employee possesses prima facie (based on the first impression; accepted as correct until proved otherwise) duties of loyalty and confidentiality to their employers and that whistleblowing cannot be justified except on the basis of a higher duty to the [[Public benefit|public good]].<ref name="Larmer-1992" /> It is important to recognize that in any relationship which demands loyalty the relationship works both ways and involves mutual enrichment.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Whistleblowing and Employee Loyalty|last = Duska|first = Ronald|date = February 1992|journal = Journal of Business Ethics|url=https://philosophia.uncg.edu/media/phi361-metivier/readings/Duska-Whistle-Blowing%20and%20Loyalty.pdf}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=January 2020}}

The ethics of [[Edward Snowden|Edward Snowden's]] actions have been widely discussed and debated in news media and academia worldwide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Friedman |first=Mark |date=2015 |title=Edward Snowden: Hero or Traitor? Considering the Implications for Canadian National Security and Whistleblower Law |url=https://digitalcommons.schulichlaw.dal.ca/djls/vol24/iss1/1/|journal=Dalhousie Journal of Legal Studies |volume=24 |pages=1}}</ref> Snowden released [[Classified information|classified]] intelligence to the American people in an attempt to allow Americans to see the inner workings of the government. A person is diligently tasked with the [[wikt:conundrum|conundrum]] of choosing to be loyal to the company or to blow the whistle on the company's wrongdoing. Discussions on whistleblowing generally revolve around three topics: attempts to define whistleblowing more precisely, debates about whether and when whistleblowing is permissible, and debates about whether and when one has an obligation to blow the whistle.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Issues in Business Ethics|publisher = Springer|year = 2007|pages = 139–147}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=January 2020}}

===Motivations===
Many whistleblowers have stated that they were motivated to take action to put an end to unethical practices after witnessing injustices in their businesses or organizations.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1037/pro0000038 | title=Using scholarship on whistleblowing to inform peer ethics reporting| journal=Professional Psychology: Research and Practice| volume=46| issue=4| pages=298–305| year=2015| last1=Rice| first1=Alexander J.}}</ref> A 2009 study found that whistleblowers are often motivated to take action when they notice a sharp decline in ethical practices, as opposed to a gradual worsening.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2009.03.013 |title = When misconduct goes unnoticed: The acceptability of gradual erosion in others' unethical behavior|journal = Journal of Experimental Social Psychology|volume = 45|issue = 4|pages = 708–719|year = 2009|last1 = Gino|first1 = Francesca|last2 = Bazerman|first2 = Max H.}}</ref> There are generally two metrics by which whistleblowers determine if a practice is [[unethical]]. The first metric involves a violation of the organization's bylaws or written ethical policies. These violations allow individuals to concretize and rationalize blowing the whistle.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1007/s10551-010-0591-1|title = From Inaction to External Whistleblowing: The Influence of the Ethical Culture of Organizations on Employee Responses to Observed Wrongdoing|journal = Journal of Business Ethics|volume = 98|issue = 3|pages = 513–530|year = 2011|last1 = Kaptein|first1 = Muel|url = http://repub.eur.nl/pub/16600|hdl = 1765/16600|s2cid = 55253548|hdl-access = free}}</ref> On the other hand, "value-driven" whistleblowers are influenced by their personal codes of ethics or by [[public service motivation]] which comes from an alignment of personal, cultural and organisational values. In these cases, whistleblowers have been criticized for being driven by personal biases.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.5465/ambpp.1992.17516217 | title=Whistleblowing: A Conceptualization and Model| journal=Academy of Management Proceedings| volume=1992| pages=348–352| year=1992| last1=Keenan| first1=John P.| last2=McLain| first2=David L.|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276048406}}</ref>

In addition to ethics, social and organizational pressure are motivating forces. A 2012 study shows that individuals are more likely to blow the whistle when others know about the wrongdoing, because they fear the consequences of keeping silent.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1007/s10551-011-0990-y|title = The Effects of Contextual and Wrongdoing Attributes on Organizational Employees' Whistleblowing Intentions Following Fraud|journal = Journal of Business Ethics|volume = 106|issue = 2|pages = 213–227|year = 2012|last1 = Robinson|first1 = Shani N.|last2 = Robertson|first2 = Jesse C.|last3 = Curtis|first3 = Mary B.|s2cid = 153653821|url=https://www.academia.edu/29417100}}</ref> In cases where one person is responsible for wrongdoing, the whistleblower may file a formal report, rather than directly confronting the wrongdoer, because confrontation would be more emotionally and psychologically stressful.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1177/0275074010375298| title=Managing Conflicting Public Values: Governing with Integrity and Effectiveness| journal=The American Review of Public Administration| volume=40| issue=6| pages=623–630| year=2010| last1=De Graaf| first1=Gjalt| last2=Van Der Wal| first2=Zeger| s2cid=219383880| url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/1fc1472e-64b5-45d7-b5db-fda8dd763d6c}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1080/00909880009365579|title = Peer reporting of coworker wrongdoing: A qualitative analysis of observer attitudes in the decision to report versus not report unethical behavior|journal = Journal of Applied Communication Research|volume = 28|issue = 4|pages = 309–329|year = 2000|last1 = King|first1 = Granville|last2 = Hermodson|first2 = Amy|s2cid = 145715363}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 256472|last1 = Trevino|first1 = Linda Klebe|title = Peer Reporting of Unethical Behavior: A Social Context Perspective|journal = The Academy of Management Journal|volume = 35|issue = 1|pages = 38–64|last2 = Victor|first2 = Bart|year = 1992}}</ref> Furthermore, individuals may be motivated to report unethical behavior when they believe their organizations will support them.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 30040692|last1 = Gundlach|first1 = Michael J.|title = The Decision to Blow the Whistle: A Social Information Processing Framework|journal = The Academy of Management Review|volume = 28|issue = 1|pages = 107–123|last2 = Douglas|first2 = Scott C.|last3 = Martinko|first3 = Mark J.|year = 2003|doi = 10.5465/amr.2003.8925239}}</ref> Professionals in management roles may feel responsibility to blow the whistle to uphold the values and rules of their organizations.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1108/13639511311302461 |title = Why police officers and labour inspectors (do not) blow the whistle|journal = Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management|volume = 36|pages = 27–50|year = 2013|last1 = Loyens|first1 = Kim|hdl = 1874/309978| s2cid=142614344 |hdl-access = free}}</ref>