Editing Windows NT 3.1 (section)

== Development history ==
The origins of Windows NT date back to 1988,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Cusumano |first=Michael A. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40671451 |title=Microsoft secrets: how the world's most powerful software company creates technology, shapes markets, and manages people |date=1998 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |others=Richard W. Selby |isbn=0-684-85531-3 |edition=1 |location=New York |pages=144 |oclc=40671451}}</ref> where Microsoft had a major foothold on the [[personal computer]] market due to the use of its [[MS-DOS]] as the operating system of [[IBM PC compatible]]s. [[Nathan Myhrvold]], who had joined Microsoft after its acquisition of Dynamical Systems Research, identified two major threats to Microsoft's monopoly—[[Reduced instruction set computing|RISC]] architectures, which proved to be more powerful than the equivalent [[Intel]] processors that MS-DOS ran on, and [[Unix]], a family of [[cross-platform]] [[Computer multitasking|multitasking]] operating systems with support for [[multiprocessing]] and [[Computer network|networking]].<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper" />{{rp|page=34}} While the widespread use of Unix was hindered by the need to adapt programs for each individual variant, [[Bill Gates]] believed that the combination of a Unix-like operating system with RISC processors could be a market threat, prompting the need for Microsoft to develop a "Unix killer" that could run on multiple architectures.<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper">{{cite book | last= Zachary | first= G. Pascal | title= Showstopper!: The breakneck race to create Windows NT and the next generation at Microsoft | publisher= E-Rights/E-Reads | location= New York | year= 2009 | isbn=978-0-7592-8578-1}}</ref>{{rp|page=35}} Myhrvold wanted to develop a new system that would run on RISC workstations and [[Intel]] [[Computer chip|chips]] and [[multiprocessing]] computers.<ref name=":0" /> Gates had also hired [[Dave Cutler]] from [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] to assist in developing the new operating system; Cutler left DEC after the cancellation of the [[DEC PRISM|PRISM]] architecture and its [[DEC MICA|MICA]] operating system, and agreed to join Microsoft on the condition that he be able to bring a number of staff members from his team at DEC with him.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="ZacharyShowstopper" />{{rp|pages=17–37}} Cutler arrived at Microsoft in October 1988, and began working on the development of the operating system in November.<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper" />{{rp|page=38}}<ref name="smith">{{cite web |last=Smith |first=Mark |date=August 26, 1999 |title=The Death of Alpha on NT |url=https://www.itprotoday.com/compute-engines/death-alpha-nt |access-date=2012-05-19 |website=ITPro Today}}</ref>

The operating system was first developed as a revised version of [[OS/2]], an operating system Microsoft had jointly developed with [[IBM]].<ref name="Custer1993"/>{{rp|pages=43–44}} While OS/2 was originally intended to succeed MS-DOS, it had yet to be commercially successful. The OS was to be designed so it could be [[porting|ported]] to different processor platforms, and support multiprocessor systems, which few operating systems did at that time.<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper" />{{rp|page=33}}<ref name="Custer1993">{{cite book | last= Custer | first= Helen | title= Inside Windows NT | publisher= Microsoft Press | location= Redmond | year= 1993 | isbn= 1-55615-481-X | url-access= registration | url= https://archive.org/details/insidewindowsnt00cust}}</ref>{{rp|page=2}}<ref name="handbook">{{cite web |date=February 7, 2012 |title=Microsoft Windows NT OS/2 Design Workbook |url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_742559 |access-date=2012-06-09 |website=National Museum of American History}}</ref> To target the enterprise market, the OS was also to support networking, the [[POSIX]] standard, and a security platform compliant with the "[[Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria|Orange Book]]" standards; which would require the OS to be a [[multi-user]] system with a permission framework and the ability to audit security-related events.<ref name="usdod">{{cite web |date=December 26, 1985 |title=Department of Defense – Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria |url=http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/history/dod85.pdf |access-date=2012-09-19 |format=PDF; 0,4 MB}}</ref>

Both Microsoft and IBM wanted to market an operating system that appealed to corporate "[[enterprise software]]" customers. That meant greater [[Computer security|security]], [[Reliability engineering|reliability]], processing power, and [[computer networking]] features. However, since Microsoft also wanted to capture market share from Unix on other [[computing platforms]], they needed a [[Systems design|system design]] that was more [[Software portability|portable]] than that of OS/2.

To this end, Microsoft began by developing and testing their new operating system for a non-[[x86]] processor: an [[Emulator|emulated]] version of the [[Intel i860]]. Alluding to the chip's codename, "N10", Microsoft codenamed their operating system '''NT OS/2'''.<ref name="thurrott">{{cite web |last=Thurrott |first=Paul |date=2003-01-24 |title=Windows Server 2003: The Road To Gold - Part One: The Early Years |url=http://www.winsupersite.com/reviews/winserver2k3_gold1.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050101005634/http://www.winsupersite.com/reviews/winserver2k3_gold1.asp |archive-date=2005-01-01 |access-date=2012-05-28 |website=Windows SuperSite}}</ref> DEC preemptively sued Microsoft, alleging that they stole code from MICA for use in the new operating system. In an out-of-court settlement, Microsoft agreed to make NT OS/2 compatible with DEC's [[DEC Alpha|Alpha processor]].<ref name="smith" />

The development team originally estimated that development would be complete within 18 months. By April 1989, the NT OS/2 kernel could run inside the i860 emulator. However, the development team later determined that the i860 was unsuitable for the project. By December they had begun porting NT OS/2 to the [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]] [[R3000]] processor instead, and completed the task in three months.<ref name="thurrott" /> Senior Microsoft executive [[Paul Maritz]] was targeting a release date in 1992, but the development schedule was uncertain. The company was eager to silence naysayers who speculated that NT wouldn't be on the market until 1994, and had planned to present the new OS at [[COMDEX]] in 1990.<ref name="Custer1993"/>{{rp|pages=84–85}}

=== As Windows NT ===
In May 1990, Microsoft released [[Windows 3.0]], a new version of its MS-DOS-based [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] [[desktop environment]]. Windows 3.0 sold well, and the resulting shift in Microsoft's marketing strategy eroded their partnership with IBM—who wanted Microsoft to concentrate solely on developing OS/2 as its primary platform as opposed to building their future business around Windows.<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper"/>{{rp|page=100}} Users and developers were unsure of whether to adopt Windows or OS/2 due to these uncertainties (a situation magnified by the fact that the operating systems were incompatible with each other at the [[Application programming interface|API]] level), while Microsoft's resources were also being drained by the simultaneous development of multiple operating systems.<ref name="Custer1993"/>{{rp|pages=98–99}}<ref name="IW27May1991_S66">{{cite journal | last=Glass | first=Brett | title=Windows, OS/2 debate is still a hot topic: Software vendors with limited resources are still forced to choose between Windows and OS/2 development | journal=InfoWorld | volume=13 | issue=21 | date=1991-05-27 | pages=66 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YlAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA66}}</ref> In August 1990, as a response to the popularity of Windows 3.0, the NT OS/2 team decided to re-work the operating system to use an extended [[32-bit]] port of the [[Windows API]] known as Win32. Win32 maintained the familiar structure of the [[16-bit]] APIs used by Windows, which would allow developers to easily adapt their software for the new platform while maintaining a level of compatibility with existing software for Windows.<ref name="IW8Jul1991_S1_103">{{cite journal | last=Johnston | first=Stuart J. | title=Microsoft drops OS/2 2.0 API, revamps 32-bit Windows plan: Users face choice between OS/2 and Windows NT | journal=InfoWorld | volume=13 | issue=27 | date=1991-07-08 | pages=1, 103 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iVAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1}}</ref> With the shift to a Windows-like architecture, the operating system's [[Shell (computing)|shell]] was also changed from OS/2's [[Presentation Manager]] to Windows' [[Program Manager]].<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper"/>{{rp|pages=102–105}}

Due to these changes, NT was not presented at COMDEX 1990 as was originally planned.<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper"/>{{rp|page=102}} Neither the general public nor IBM knew about the transformation of NT OS/2 into ''Windows NT'' at the time.<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper"/>{{rp|page=108}} Although the companies did agree to a revised partnership where IBM and Microsoft would alternate developing major versions of OS/2 instead of collaborating on each version,<ref name="IW24Dec1990_S8">{{cite journal | last=Parker | first=Rachel | title=Two giants with own views: IBM needs OS/2; Microsoft does Windows| journal=InfoWorld | volume=12 | issue=52 | date=1990-12-24 | pages=8 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sFAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA8}}</ref> IBM eventually learned of Microsoft's Windows NT plans in January 1991, and immediately ended the OS/2 partnership. IBM would solely develop OS/2 2.0 (as was planned under the amended version) and all future versions, without any further involvement from Microsoft.<ref name="Custer1993" />{{rp|pages=108–109}}<ref name="IW8Jul1991_S1_103" />

In October 1991, Windows NT received its first public demonstration at COMDEX. In an effort to ensure software taking advantage of Windows NT was available upon its release (scheduled for late-1992), Microsoft also distributed a 32-bit [[software development kit]] to selected developers in attendance.<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper"/>{{rp|page=165}}<ref name="IW28Oct1991_S1_8">{{cite journal | last=Johnston | first=Stuart J. | title=NT looks real at Comdex: Microsoft declares it will start beta tests in early 1992 | journal=InfoWorld | volume=13 | issue=43 | date=1991-10-28 | pages=1, 8 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dT0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1}}</ref> The demonstration was positively received; [[PC Magazine]] called Windows NT "the modern reinvention of the operating system", but at the same time claimed that it was unlikely that the promised [[backward compatibility]] would be kept for the final release.<ref name="Custer1993" />{{rp|pages=175–176}}<ref name="PCMag26Nov1991_S8586">{{cite journal| last=Machrone | first=Bill | title=Are NT Promises MT Promises? | journal=PC Magazine | volume=10 | issue=20 | date=1991-11-26 | pages=85f |issn=0888-8507 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wEufoGXlUxUC}}</ref> In March 1992, Microsoft also released [[Win32s]], which would allow [[Windows 3.1]] to have partial compatibility with Windows NT programs for the purposes of developing software optimized for the platform.<ref name="IW2Mar1992_S1_107">{{cite journal | last=Johnston | first=Stuart J. | title=Microsoft reveals 32-bit strategy: Win32s lets NT applications run on Windows 3.1 | journal=InfoWorld | volume=14 | issue=9 | date=1992-03-02 | pages=1, 107 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9z0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1}}</ref>

At Microsoft's [[Professional Developers Conference|Win32 Professional Developers Conference]] in June 1992, Windows NT was demonstrated running on x86 and MIPS processors, while a beta version of Windows NT and an updated development kit were also made available.<ref name="IW13Jul1992_S1_92">{{cite journal | last=Strehlo | first=Kevin | title=Microsoft makes its move with Windows NT SDK | journal=InfoWorld | volume=14 | issue=28 | date=1992-07-13 | pages=1, 92 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=elEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1}}</ref> Concurrently, Microsoft announced a new version of its [[Microsoft SQL Server|SQL Server]] product for Windows NT; Unix vendors feared that the software could be a [[killer app]] that would affect the market share of Unix systems.<ref name="IW20Jul1992_S8">{{cite journal | last=Johnston | first=Stuart J. | title=SDK readied for SQL Server for NT: Will speed writing of 32-bit code | journal=InfoWorld | volume=14 | issue=29 | date=1992-07-20 | pages=8 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IlEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA8}}</ref><ref name="IW14Dec1992_S8">{{cite journal | last1=Hammett | first1=Jim | last2=McCarthy | first2=Vance | title=Unix vendors strike out at Microsoft: Campaign seeks to steal thunder of Windows NT | journal=InfoWorld | volume=14 | issue=50 | date=1992-12-14 | pages=8 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=S1EEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA8}}</ref> Concerns were also raised over NT's memory usage; while most computers of the era shipped with 4 megabytes of [[Random-access memory|RAM]], 16 MB was recommended for NTs. Due to the high cost of RAM at the time, critics thought that its high system requirements could affect the sales and adoption of Windows NT. Steps were taken to reduce its memory usage through methods such as [[paging]].<ref name="Custer1993"/>{{rp|page=227–249}}

Microsoft began releasing public beta builds of NT in October 1992, and a month later at COMDEX, a presentation focusing on third-party software for Windows NT was held.<ref name="IW12Oct1992_S17">{{cite journal | last=Willett | first=Shawn | title=NT's delays mean a second look and respect for OS/2 | journal=InfoWorld | volume=14 | issue=41 | date=1992-10-12 | pages=17 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=n1EEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA17}}</ref><ref name="IW26Oct1992_S3">{{cite journal | last=Johnston | first=Stuart J. | title=Microsoft rolls out Windows NT beta | journal=InfoWorld | volume=14 | issue=43 | date=1992-10-26 | pages=3 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hFEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA3}}</ref><ref name="IW23Nov1992_S3">{{cite journal | last=Johnston | first=Stuart J. | title=Vendors throw support behind Windows NT | journal=InfoWorld | volume=14 | issue=47 | date=1992-11-23 | pages=3 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=LlEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA3}}</ref> The final pre-release version of NT was released in March 1993, alongside the unveiling of the server version, ''LAN Manager for Windows NT''. Although its stability and performance had improved, there were still fears that the OS could be released in an unfinished state or delayed further into 1993.<ref name="IW5Apr1993_S3">{{cite journal | last=Johnston | first=Stuart J. | title=NT is shaping up, say latest beta users: But they want a bug-free final version, even if it's late | journal=InfoWorld | volume=15 | issue=14 | date=1993-04-05 | pages=3 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ODwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA3}}</ref><ref name="IW31May1993_S13">{{cite journal | last1=Willett | first1=Shawn | last2=Borzo | first2=Jeanette | title=Users praise NT's graphics support at Comdex | journal=InfoWorld | volume=15 | issue=22 | date=1993-05-31 | pages=13 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PDsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA13}}</ref>

By [[Brand extension|extending]] the Windows brand and beginning NT at [[Software versioning|version]] 3.1, like [[Windows 3.1]] which had established [[brand recognition]] and [[market share]], Microsoft implied that consumers should expect a familiar [[user experience]] yet re-engineered.

=== Release ===
Windows NT 3.1 and Windows NT 3.1 Advanced Server (so numbered to associate them with [[Windows 3.1]]) were released on July 26, 1993.<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper"/>{{rp|page=300}} At first, only the x86 and MIPS versions shipped; the DEC Alpha version followed in September.<ref name="thurrott" /><ref name="IW20Sep1993_S3">{{cite journal | last1=Johnston | first1=Stuart J. | last2=Barney | first2=Doug | title=NT version for Alpha chip poised to ship to users | journal=InfoWorld | volume=15 | issue=38 | date=1993-09-20 | pages=3 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8zoEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA3}}</ref> Microsoft sold the workstation version for {{US$|long=no|495}}, and the server version for {{US$|long=no|1495}}. Ostensibly, the server price was meant to be a promotional discount offered only during the first six months of sale, but they never raised the retail price to the listed one—{{US$|long=no|2995}}.<ref name="IW31May1993_S1">{{cite journal | last=Mace | first=Scott | title=NT keeps client/server apps waiting: Database servers will be ready as soon as Microsoft ships delayed OS | journal=InfoWorld | volume=15 | issue=22 | date=1993-05-31 | pages=1 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PDsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1}}</ref><ref name="IW19Sep1994_S5">{{cite journal | last=Barney | first=Doug | title=Microsoft set to ship Windows NT 3.5: Will bolster push into enterprise with SMS release | journal=InfoWorld | volume=16 | issue=38 | date=1994-09-19 | pages=5 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jDgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA5}}</ref> 250 programmers<ref name="IW24May1993_S92">{{cite journal | last=Hixson | first=Amanda | title=Aiming for the high end: An Interview with Paul Thatcher, Microsoft's Windows NT product manager | journal=InfoWorld | volume=15 | issue=21 | date=1993-05-24 | pages=92 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PTsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA92}}</ref> wrote 5.6 million [[lines of code]];<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper"/>{{rp|page=290}} the development cost {{US$|long=no|150 million}}.<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper"/>{{rp|page=307}} In the last year of development, the team fixed more than 30,000 bugs.<ref name="ZacharyShowstopper"/>{{rp|page=300}}

During the product's lifecycle, Microsoft published three [[service pack]]s: Service Pack 1 was released on October 8, 1993; Service Pack 2 followed on January 24, 1994; and Service Pack 3's release date was October 29, 1994. The service packs were distributed on CD-ROM and floppy disk, and also through [[bulletin board system]]s, [[CompuServe]], and the [[Internet]]. Microsoft terminated support for the operating system on December 31, 2000. Support for Windows NT 3.1 RTM (without a service pack) ended on January 8, 1994. Service Pack 1 support ended on April 24, 1994, and finally, Service Pack 2 support ended on January 29, 1995, only 1 year after general availability.

Windows NT 3.1 was localized into various languages. Besides English, it was available in Dutch, French, German, Japanese, Spanish and Swedish. The version for workstations, but not Windows NT 3.1 Server, was additionally available in Danish, Finnish, Italian, Norwegian and Portuguese.<ref name="mslocale">{{cite web |title=Older Versions of Windows: Windows NT 3.1 |url=http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/ff678782#Win3.1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023012802/http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/ff678782#Win3.1 |archive-date=2012-10-23 |access-date=2012-10-23 |website=Microsoft Developer Network}}</ref>