Editing Wireless sensor network (section)

==Application==
===Area monitoring===
Area monitoring is a common application of WSNs. In area monitoring, the WSN is deployed over a region where some phenomenon is to be monitored. A military example is the use of sensors to detect enemy intrusion; a civilian example is the [[Geo-fence|geo-fencing]] of gas or [[oil pipeline]]s.

===Health care monitoring===
There are several types of sensor networks for medical applications: implanted, wearable, and environment-embedded. Implantable medical devices are those that are inserted inside the human body. [[Wearable technology|Wearable]] devices are used on the body surface of a human or just at close proximity of the user. Environment-embedded systems employ sensors contained in the environment. Possible applications include body position measurement, location of persons, overall monitoring of ill patients in hospitals and at home. Devices embedded in the environment track the physical state of a person for continuous health diagnosis, using as input the data from a network of [[depth camera]]s, a [[sensing floor]], or other similar devices. Body-area networks can collect information about an individual's health, fitness, and energy expenditure.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Peiris | first1 = V. | doi = 10.1117/2.1201312.005120 | title = Highly integrated wireless sensing for body area network applications | journal = SPIE Newsroom | year = 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference | url=https://www.ucc.ie/en/media/research/misl/2009publications/pervasive09.pdf | title=A Context Aware Wireless Body Area Network (BAN) | author=Tony O'Donovan | author2=John O'Donoghue | author3=Cormac Sreenan | author4=David Sammon | author5=Philip O'Reilly | author6=Kieran A. O'Connor | conference=Pervasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare, 2009 | year=2009 | doi=10.4108/ICST.PERVASIVEHEALTH2009.5987 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009184231/https://www.ucc.ie/en/media/research/misl/2009publications/pervasive09.pdf | archive-date=2016-10-09 }}</ref> In health care applications the privacy and authenticity of user data has prime importance. Especially due to the integration of sensor networks, with IoT, the user authentication becomes more challenging; however, a solution is presented in recent work.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bilal, Muhammad|display-authors=etal|title=An Authentication Protocol for Future Sensor Networks|journal=Sensors|volume=17|issue=5|page=979|doi=10.3390/s17050979|pmid=28452937|pmc=5464775|year=2017|bibcode=2017Senso..17..979B|arxiv=1705.00764|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Habitat monitoring===
Wireless sensor networks have been used to monitor various species and [[habitat]]s, beginning with the [[Great Duck Island]] Deployment, including marmots, [[cane toad]]s in Australia and zebras in Kenya.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oppermann |first1=Felix Jonathan |last2=Boano |first2=Carlo Alberto |last3=Römer |first3=Kay |title=The Art of Wireless Sensor Networks: Volume 1: Fundamentals |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-40009-4 |pages=11–50 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-40009-4_2 |language=en |chapter=A Decade of Wireless Sensing Applications: Survey and Taxonomy |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-40009-4_2}}</ref>

===Environmental/Earth sensing ===
There are many applications in monitoring environmental parameters,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/263093/1/esn.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123185424/http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/263093/1/esn.pdf|title=J.K.Hart and K. Martinez, "Environmental Sensor Networks: A revolution in the earth system science?", Earth-Science Reviews, 2006|archive-date=November 23, 2015}}</ref> examples of which are given below. They share the extra challenges of harsh environments and reduced power supply.

====Air quality monitoring====
Experiments have shown that personal exposure to [[air pollution]] in cities can vary a lot.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Apte |first1=J.S. |last2=Messier |first2=K.P. |last3=Gani |first3=S. |last4=Brauer |first4=M. |last5=Kirchstetter |first5=T.W. |last6=Lunden |first6=M.M. |last7=Marshall |first7=J.D. |last8=Portier |first8=C.J. |last9=Vermeulen |first9=R.C.H. |last10=Hamburg |first10=S.P. |date=2017 |title=High-Resolution Air Pollution Mapping with Google Street View Cars: Exploiting Big Data |journal=Environmental Science and Technology |volume=51 |issue=12 |pages=6999–7008 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.7b00891|pmid=28578585 |bibcode=2017EnST...51.6999A |doi-access=free }}</ref> Therefore, it is of interest to have higher temporal and spatial resolution of [[pollutants]] and [[particulates]]. For research purposes, wireless sensor networks have been deployed to monitor the concentration of [[air pollution|dangerous gases for citizens]] (e.g., in [[London]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.breathelondon.org/ |title=Breathe London |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=Breathe London |access-date=27 April 2021}}</ref> However, sensors for gases and particulate matter suffer from high unit-to-unit variability, cross-sensitivities, and (concept) drift.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Feinberg |first1=S. |last2=Williams |first2=R. |last3=Hagler |first3=G.S.W. |last4=Rickard |first4=J. |last5=Garver |first5=D. |last6=Harshfield |first6=G. |last7=Stauffer |first7=P. |last8=Mattson |first8=E. |last9=Judge |first9=R. |last10=Garvey |first10=S. |date=2018 |title=Long-term evaluation of air sensor technology under ambient conditions in Denver, Colorado |journal=Atmospheric Measurement Techniques |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=4605–4615 |doi=10.5194/amt-11-4605-2018|pmid=31595175 |pmc=6781239 |bibcode=2018AMT....11.4605F |doi-access=free }}</ref> Moreover, the quality of data is currently insufficient for trustworthy decision-making, as field calibration leads to unreliable measurement results, and frequent recalibration might be required. A possible solution could be blind calibration or the usage of mobile references.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Balzano |first1=L. |last2=Nowak |first2=R. |title=Networked Sensing Information and Control |chapter=Blind Calibration of Networks of Sensors: Theory and Algorithms |date=2008 |pages=9–37 | doi=10.1007/978-0-387-68845-9_1|isbn=978-0-387-68843-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sauce |first1=O. |last2=Hasenfratz |first2=D. |last3=Thiele|first3=L. |title=Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks |chapter=Reducing multi-hop calibration errors in large-scale mobile sensor networks |date=2015 |pages=274–285 | doi=10.1145/2737095.2737113|isbn=978-1-4503-3475-4 |s2cid=15171166 }}</ref>

====Forest fire detection====
A network of Sensor Nodes can be installed in a forest to detect when a [[forest fire|fire]] has started. The nodes can be equipped with sensors to measure temperature, humidity and gases which are produced by fire in the trees or vegetation. The early detection is crucial for a successful action of the firefighters; thanks to Wireless Sensor Networks, the fire brigade will be able to know when a fire is started and how it is spreading.

====Landslide detection====
A [[landslide]] detection system makes use of a wireless sensor network to detect the slight movements of soil and changes in various parameters that may occur before or during a landslide. Through the data gathered it may be possible to know the impending occurrence of landslides long before it actually happens.

====Water quality monitoring====
[[Water quality]] monitoring involves analyzing water properties in dams, rivers, lakes and oceans, as well as underground water reserves. The use of many wireless distributed sensors enables the creation of a more accurate map of the water status, and allows the permanent deployment of monitoring stations in locations of difficult access, without the need of manual data retrieval.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Spie | doi = 10.1117/2.3201305.05 | title = Vassili Karanassios: Energy scavenging to power remote sensors | journal = SPIE Newsroom | year = 2013 }}</ref>

====Natural disaster prevention====
Wireless sensor networks can be effective in preventing adverse consequences of [[natural disaster]]s, like floods. Wireless nodes have been deployed successfully in rivers, where changes in water levels must be monitored in real time.

===Industrial monitoring===

====Machine health monitoring====
Wireless sensor networks have been developed for machinery [[condition-based maintenance]] (CBM) as they offer significant cost savings and enable new functionality.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Tiwari, Ankit|display-authors=etal|title=Energy-efficient wireless sensor network design and implementation for condition-based maintenance|journal=ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks |volume=3|pages=1–es|doi=10.1145/1210669.1210670|year=2007|citeseerx=10.1.1.188.8180|s2cid=7278286}}</ref>

Wireless sensors can be placed in locations difficult or impossible to reach with a wired system, such as rotating machinery and untethered vehicles.

====Data logging====
{{Main|Data logging}}
Wireless sensor networks also are used for the collection of data for monitoring of environmental information.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=K. Saleem|author2=N. Fisal|author3=J. Al-Muhtadi|name-list-style=amp|title=Empirical studies of bio-inspired self-organized secure autonomousRouting protocol|journal=IEEE Sensors Journal |pages=1–8|year=2014|doi=10.1109/JSEN.2014.2308725|volume=14|issue=7|bibcode=2014ISenJ..14.2232S|s2cid=27135727}}</ref> This can be as simple as monitoring the temperature in a fridge or the level of water in overflow tanks in nuclear power plants. The statistical information can then be used to show how systems have been working. The advantage of WSNs over conventional loggers is the "live" data feed that is possible.

====Water/waste water monitoring====
Monitoring the [[water quality|quality]] and level of water includes many activities such as checking the quality of [[underground water|underground]] or surface water and ensuring a country's [[water infrastructure]] for the benefit of both human and animal. It may be used to protect the wastage of water.

====Structural health monitoring====
{{Main|Structural health monitoring}}
WSN can be used to monitor the condition of civil infrastructure and related geo-physical processes close to real time, and over long periods through [[data logging]], using appropriately interfaced sensors.

====Wine production====
Wireless sensor networks are used to monitor [[wine production]], both in the field and the cellar.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4755823|last1=Anastasi|first1=G.|last2=Farruggia|first2=O.|last3=Lo Re|first3=G.|last4=Ortolani|first4=M.|title=2009 42nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences|chapter=Monitoring High-Quality Wine Production using Wireless Sensor Networks|year=2009|pages=1–7|doi=10.1109/HICSS.2009.313|isbn=978-0-7695-3450-3}}</ref>

===Threat detection===
The [[Wide Area Tracking System]] (WATS) is a prototype network for detecting a ground-based nuclear device<ref>{{cite web |title=A national strategy against terrorism using weapons of mass destruction |url=https://str.llnl.gov/str/Imbro.html |website=str.llnl.gov |publisher=Science & Technology Review |access-date=26 February 2019 |archive-date=2 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502044856/https://str.llnl.gov/str/Imbro.html  }}</ref> such as a [[Suitcase nuclear device|nuclear "briefcase bomb"]]. WATS is being developed at the [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] (LLNL). WATS would be made up of wireless gamma and neutron sensors connected through a communications network. Data picked up by the sensors undergoes [[Sensor fusion|"data fusion"]], which converts the information into easily interpreted forms; this data fusion is the most important aspect of the system.<ref name="FAS">{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/congress/1997_h/has274010_1.htm#79 |website=fas.org |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |title=Striving for a Safer World Since 1945 |access-date=2019-02-26 |archive-date=2016-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316140126/http://fas.org/spp/starwars/congress/1997_h/has274010_1.htm#79  }}</ref>{{Obsolete source|reason=source site is a blog aggregator that appears not to be searchable |date=February 2019}}

The data fusion process occurs ''within'' the sensor network rather than at a centralized computer and is performed by a specially developed algorithm based on [[Bayesian statistics]].<ref name="SFD">{{cite web |last1=Hills |first1=Rob |title=Sensing for Danger |url=https://str.llnl.gov/str/JulAug01/Hills.html |website=str.llnl.gov |publisher=Science & Technology Review |access-date=26 February 2019 |archive-date=2 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502040310/https://str.llnl.gov/str/JulAug01/Hills.html  }}</ref> WATS would not use a centralized computer for analysis because researchers found that factors such as latency and available bandwidth tended to create significant bottlenecks. Data processed in the field by the network itself (by transferring small amounts of data between neighboring sensors) is faster and makes the network more scalable.<ref name="SFD"/>

An important factor in WATS development is ''ease of deployment'', since more sensors both improves the detection rate and reduces false alarms.<ref name="SFD"/> WATS sensors could be deployed in permanent positions or mounted in vehicles for mobile protection of specific locations. One barrier to the implementation of WATS is the size, weight, energy requirements and cost of currently available wireless sensors.<ref name="SFD"/> The development of improved sensors is a major component of current research at the Nonproliferation, Arms Control, and International Security (NAI) Directorate at LLNL.

WATS was profiled to the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives']] Military Research and Development Subcommittee on October 1, 1997, during a hearing on nuclear terrorism and countermeasures.<ref name="FAS"/> On August 4, 1998, in a subsequent meeting of that subcommittee, Chairman [[Curt Weldon]] stated that research funding for WATS had been cut by the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration to a subsistence level and that the program had been poorly re-organized.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/security/has216010.000/has216010_1.HTM#12 |website=commdocs.house.gov|publisher=US House of Representatives|access-date=26 February 2019|title=U.S./Russian National Security Interests}}</ref>

==== Incident monitoring ====
Studies show that using sensors for incident monitoring improve the response of firefighters and police to an unexpected situation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aguilar|first=Mónica|title=INRISCO: INcident monitoRing in Smart COmmunities|journal=IEEE Access|year=2020|volume=8|pages=72435–72460|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9064504|doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2987483|arxiv=2312.07787 |bibcode=2020IEEEA...872435I |s2cid=218468946|hdl=2117/328871|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For an early detection of incidents we can use acoustic sensors to detect a spike in the noise of the city because of a possible accident,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pastor|first=Adolfo|title=Psychoacoustic Annoyance Implementation With Wireless Acoustic Sensor Networks for Monitoring in Smart Cities|journal=IEEE Internet of Things Journal|year=2020|volume=7|pages=128–136|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8865089|doi=10.1109/JIOT.2019.2946971|s2cid=208111073|hdl=10550/106322|hdl-access=free}}</ref> or use termic sensors to detect a possible fire.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lloret|first=Jaime|title=A Wireless Sensor Network Deployment for Rural and Forest Fire Detection and Verification|journal= Sensors|year=2009|volume=9|issue=11|pages=8722–8747|doi=10.3390/s91108722|pmid=22291533|bibcode=2009Senso...9.8722L|s2cid=13104461|pmc=3260610|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Supply chains===
Using [[low-power electronics]], WSN:s can be cost-efficiently applied also in [[supply chains]] in various industries.<ref name=wsj>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/israeli-tech-firm-rolls-out-tracking-devices-the-size-of-postage-stamps-11654682401|publisher=[[Wall Street Journal]]|title=Israeli Tech Firm Rolls Out Tracking Devices the Size of Postage Stamps |date=2022-06-08|access-date=2022-07-08|author=Liz Young}}</ref>