Editing Workstation (section)

==History==
[[File:XeroxWorkstation.jpg|thumb|Early [[Xerox]] workstation]]
[[File:HP-HP9000-425-Workstation 26.jpg|thumb|[[HP 9000]] model 425 workstation running [[HP-UX]] 9 and [[Visual User Environment]] (VUE)]]
[[File:HP-HP9000-735-99-Workstation 02.jpg|thumb|[[HP 9000]] model 735 running [[HP-UX]] and the [[Common Desktop Environment]] (CDE)]]

===Origins and development===
Workstations are older than the first [[personal computer]] (PC).<ref name="baran198902">{{Cite magazine |last=Baran |first=Nick |date=February 1989 |title=Two Worlds Converge |url=https://archive.org/details/eu_BYTE-1989-02_OCR/page/n284/mode/1up?view=theater |access-date=2024-10-08 |magazine=BYTE |pages=229–233}}</ref> The first computer that might qualify as a workstation is the [[IBM 1620]], a small scientific computer designed to be used interactively by a single person sitting at the console.<ref>{{cite web |title=IBM workstations |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/documents/pdf/emea.pdf |website=IBM}}</ref> It was introduced in 1959.<ref>{{cite web |date=2003-01-23 |title=IBM Archives: 1620 Data Processing System |url=https://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/mainframe/mainframe_PP1620.html |access-date=2022-03-06 |website=www.ibm.com |language=en-US}}</ref> One peculiar feature of the machine is that it lacks any arithmetic circuitry.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sweeney |first=D. W. |date=1965 |title=An analysis of floating-point addition |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1147/sj.41.0031 |journal=IBM Systems Journal |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=31–42 |doi=10.1147/sj.41.0031 |issn=0018-8670|url-access=subscription }}</ref> To perform addition, it requires a memory-resident table of decimal addition rules.<ref>{{cite web |date=2017-12-22 |title=IBM 1620 |url=http://www.swansea.ac.uk/library/archive-and-research-collections/hocc/computersandsoftware/earlycomputers/ibm1620/ |access-date=2022-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222105457/http://www.swansea.ac.uk/library/archive-and-research-collections/hocc/computersandsoftware/earlycomputers/ibm1620/ |archive-date=2017-12-22 }}</ref> This reduced the cost of logic circuitry, enabling IBM to make it inexpensive. The machine is [[codename]]d CADET and was initially rented for $1000 per month.

In 1965, the [[IBM 1130]] scientific computer became the successor to 1620. Both of these systems run [[Fortran]] and other languages.<ref>{{cite web |date=2019-07-05 |title=IBM 1130 Press Release |url=http://www.ibm1130.net/1130Release.html |access-date=2022-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705200515/http://www.ibm1130.net/1130Release.html |archive-date=2019-07-05 }}</ref> They are built into roughly desk-sized cabinets, with console typewriters. They have optional add-on disk drives, printers, and both paper-tape and punched-card I/O.

Early workstations were generally dedicated [[minicomputer]]s, a multiuser system reserved for one user.{{r|baran198902}} For example, the [[PDP-8]] from [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], is regarded as the first commercial minicomputer.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hey |first=Anthony J. G. |title=The computing universe : a journey through a revolution |date=2015 |others=Gyuri Pápay |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-12976-0 |oclc=899007268}}</ref>

Workstations have historically been more advanced than contemporary PCs, with more powerful CPU architectures, earlier networking, more advanced graphics, more memory, and multitasking with sophisticated operating systems like Unix. Because of their minicomputer heritage, from the start workstations have run professional and expensive software such as CAD and graphics design, as opposed to PCs' games and text editors.{{r|baran198902}} The [[Lisp machine]]s developed at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in the early 1970s pioneered some workstation principles, as high-performance, networked, single-user systems intended for heavily interactive use. Lisp Machines were commercialized beginning 1980 by companies like [[Symbolics]], [[Lisp Machines]], [[Texas Instruments]] (the [[TI Explorer]]), and [[Xerox]] (the [[Interlisp-D]] workstations). The first computer designed for a single user, with high-resolution graphics (and so a workstation in the modern sense), is the [[Xerox Alto|Alto]] developed at [[Xerox PARC]] in 1973.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newquist |first=HP |url=http://archive.org/details/brainmakers0000newq |title=The Brain Makers |date=1994 |publisher=Indianapolis, Ind. : Sams Pub. |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-672-30412-5}}</ref> Other early workstations include the [[Terak 8510/a]] (1977),<ref>{{cite web |title=» Pascal and the P-Machine The Digital Antiquarian |url=https://www.filfre.net/2012/03/pascal-and-the-p-machine/ |access-date=2022-03-08 |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Three Rivers PERQ]] (1979), and the later [[Xerox Star]] (1981).

===1980s rise in popularity===
{{See also|Silicon Graphics Inc|NeXT|Apollo Computer|Digital Equipment Corporation|IBM RT PC}}
In the early 1980s, with the advent of [[32-bit]] [[microprocessor]]s such as the [[Motorola 68000]], several new competitors appeared, including [[Apollo Computer]] and [[Sun Microsystems]],<ref>{{cite web |date=2013-02-11 |title=The Death Of The Workstation? - INFOtainment News |work=INFOtainment News |url=https://infotainmentnews.net/the-death-of-the-workstation/ |access-date=2022-03-19 |language=en-US}}</ref> with workstations based on 68000 and [[Unix]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The SUN workstation architecture |url=http://i.stanford.edu/pub/cstr/reports/csl/tr/82/229/CSL-TR-82-229.pdf |access-date=15 March 2022 |website=Stanford University}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Apollo Domain DN100 workstation - CHM Revolution |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/computer-graphics-music-and-art/15/217/605 |access-date=2022-03-10 |website=www.computer history.org}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[DARPA]]'s [[VLSI Project]] created several spinoff graphics products, such as the [[Silicon Graphics]] [[Silicon Graphics#IRIS 2000 and 3000 series|3130]]. Target markets were differentiated, with Sun and Apollo considered to be network workstations and SGI as graphics workstations. [[Reduced instruction set computing|RISC]] CPUs increased in the mid-1980s, typical of workstation vendors.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Funding a revolution : government support for computing research |date=1999 |publisher=National Academy Press |isbn=0-585-14273-4 |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=44965252}}</ref> Competition between RISC vendors lowered CPU prices to as little as $10 per MIPS, much less expensive than the [[Intel 80386]];<ref name="byte198902">{{Cite magazine |last1=Marshall |first1=Trevor |last2=Tazelaar |first2=Jane Morrill |date=February 1989 |title=Worth the RISC |url=https://archive.org/details/eu_BYTE-1989-02_OCR/page/n299/mode/2up?view=theater |access-date=2024-10-08 |magazine=BYTE |pages=245–249}}</ref> after large price cuts in 1987 and 1988, a personal workstation suitable for 2D CAD costing {{US$|long=no|5000|1989|about|round=-3}} to {{US$|long=no|25000|1989|about|round=-3}} was available from multiple vendors. Mid-range models capable of 3D graphics cost from {{US$|long=no|35000|1989|about|round=-3}} to {{US$|long=no|60000|1989|about|round=-3}}, while high-end models overlapping with minicomputers cost from {{US$|long=no|80000|1989|about|round=-3}} to {{US$|long=no|100000|1989|about|round=-3}} or more.<ref name="robinson198902">{{Cite magazine |last=Robinson |first=Phillip |date=February 1989 |title=Art + 2 Years = Science |url=https://archive.org/details/eu_BYTE-1989-02_OCR/page/n309/mode/2up?view=theater |access-date=2024-10-08 |magazine=BYTE |pages=255–264}}</ref>

By then a {{US$|long=no|12000|1989|about|round=-3}} "personal workstation" might be a high-end PC like [[Macintosh II]] or [[IBM PS/2 Model 80]], low-end workstation, or a hybrid device like the [[NeXT Computer]], all with similar, overlapping specifications.{{r|baran198902}} One differentiator between PC and workstation was that the latter was much more likely to have a [[graphics accelerator]] with support for a graphics standard like [[PHIGS]] or [[X Window]], while the former usually depended on [[software rendering]] or proprietary accelerators. The [[computer animation]] industry's needs typically caused improvements in graphical technology, with CAD using the same improvements later.{{r|robinson198902}} ''BYTE'' predicted in 1989 "Soon, the only way we'll be able to tell the difference between traditional workstations and PCs will be by the operating system they run", with the former running Unix and the latter running [[OS/2]], [[classic Mac OS]], and/or Unix. Many workstations by then had some method to run increasingly popular and powerful PC software such as [[Lotus 1-2-3]] or [[Microsoft Word]].{{r|baran198902}} The magazine demonstrated that year that an individual could build a workstation with commodity components with specifications comparable to commercially available low-end workstations.<ref name="nicholls198902">{{Cite magazine |last=Nicholls |first=Bill |date=February 1989 |title=The Current Crop |url=https://archive.org/details/eu_BYTE-1989-02_OCR/page/n290/mode/1up?view=theater |access-date=2024-10-08 |magazine=BYTE |pages=235–244}}</ref>

Workstations often featured [[SCSI]] or [[Fibre Channel]] disk storage systems, high-end [[3D accelerator]]s, single or multiple [[64-bit]] [[central processing unit|processors]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJ1OAAAAIBAJ&dq=%22Workstation%22&pg=PA45&article_id=5472,2450145 |title=New Straits Times |publisher=New Straits Times |language=en}}</ref> large amounts of [[Random-access memory|RAM]], and well-designed cooling.  Additionally, the companies that make the products tend to have comprehensive repair/replacement plans.  As the distinction between workstation and PC fades, however, workstation manufacturers have increasingly employed "off-the-shelf" PC components and graphics solutions rather than proprietary hardware or software. Some "low-cost" workstations are still expensive by PC standards but offer binary compatibility with higher-end workstations and servers made by the same vendor. This allows software development to take place on low-cost (relative to the server) desktop machines.

===Thin clients===
Workstations diversified to the lowest possible price point as opposed to performance, called the [[thin client]] or [[network computer]]. Dependent upon a network and server, this reduces the machine to having no hard drive, and only the CPU, keyboard, mouse, and screen.  Some [[diskless node]]s still run a traditional operating system and perform computations locally, with storage on a remote [[Server (computing)|server]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Conrad |first1=Eric |date=2012 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-59749-961-3.00003-0 |title=CISSP Study Guide |pages=63–141 |publisher=Elsevier |access-date=2022-03-18 |last2=Misenar |first2=Seth |last3=Feldman |first3=Joshua|doi=10.1016/b978-1-59749-961-3.00003-0 |isbn=9781597499613 }}</ref> These are intended to reduce the initial system purchase cost, and the [[total cost of ownership]], by reducing the amount of administration required per user.<ref>{{cite web |title=Diskless Nodes HOW-TO document for Linux: What is this all about? |url=http://www.ossh.com/howto/Diskless-HOWTO-1.html |access-date=2022-03-18 |website=www.ossh.com}}</ref>

This approach was first attempted as a replacement for PCs in office productivity applications, with the [[3Station]] by [[3Com]]. In the 1990s, [[X terminal]]s filled a similar role for technical computing. Sun's [[thin client]]s include the [[Sun Ray]] product line.<ref>{{cite news |title=CNN - Here comes the Sun Ray - November 2, 1999 |url=http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9911/02/sun.ray.idg/ |access-date=2022-03-18 |website=www.CNN.com}}</ref> However, traditional workstations and PCs continued to drop in price and complexity as remote management tools for IT staff became available, undercutting this market.

===3M computer===
{{Main|3M computer}}
[[File:NeXTstation Turbo Color 2.jpeg|thumb|A [[NeXTstation]] graphics workstation from 1990]]
[[File:sony news.jpg|thumb|[[Sony NEWS]] workstation: 2× [[68030]] at 25 MHz, 1280×1024 pixel and 256-color display]]
[[File:SGI Indy CRT.jpg|thumb|[[SGI Indy]] graphics workstation]]
[[File:SGI O2 Workstation Desk.jpeg|thumb|[[SGI O2]] graphics workstation]]
[[File:HP-HP9000-C8000-Workstation 33.jpg|thumb|[[Hewlett-Packard|HP]] C8000 workstation running [[HP-UX]] 11i with [[Common Desktop Environment|CDE]]]]
[[File:Six HP workstations.jpg|right|thumb|Six workstations: four HP Z620, one HP Z820, one HP Z420]]
A high-end workstation of the early 1980s with the three Ms, or a "3M computer" (coined by Raj Reddy and his colleagues at CMU), has one megabyte of RAM, a megapixel display (roughly 1000×1000 pixels), and one "[[megaflop|MegaFLOPS]]" compute performance (at least one million floating-point operations per second).<ref>Andries van Dam; David H. Laidlaw; Rosemary Michelle Simpson (2002-08-04). "Experiments in Immersive Virtual Reality for Scientific Visualization". Computers & Graphics. 26 (4): 535–555. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.4.9249. doi:10.1016/S0097-8493(02)00113-9</ref> RFC 782 defines the workstation environment more generally as "hardware and software dedicated to serve a single user", and that it provisions additional shared resources. This is at least one order of magnitude beyond the capacity of the personal computer of the time. The original 1981 [[IBM Personal Computer]] has 16 KB memory, a text-only display, and floating-point performance around {{val|1 |ul=kFLOPS}} ({{val|30 |u=kFLOPS}} with the optional 8087 math coprocessor). Other features beyond the typical personal computer include networking, graphics acceleration, and high-speed internal and peripheral data buses.

Another goal was to bring the price below one "[[wikt:megapenny|megapenny]]", that is, less than {{US$|long=no|10000|1985|about|round=-3}}, which was achieved in the late 1980s. Throughout the early to mid-1990s, many workstations cost from {{US$|15000|long=no}} to {{USD|100000|long=no|1995|round=-3}} or more.

===Decline===
The more widespread adoption of these technologies into mainstream PCs was a direct factor in the decline of the workstation as a separate market segment:<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGlGAAAAIBAJ&dq=%22Workstation%22&pg=PA14&article_id=6267,1290833 |title=The Daily Gazette |publisher=The Daily Gazette |language=en}}</ref>

* Reliable components
* High-performance [[3D computer graphics|3D graphics]] hardware for [[computer-aided design ]] (CAD) and [[computer-generated imagery]] (CGI) animation is increasingly popular in the PC market around the mid-to-late 1990s mostly driven by computer gaming, yielding the first official GPU in [[Nvidia]]'s NV10 and the breakthrough [[GeForce 256]].
* High-performance [[Central processing unit|CPUs]]: the first [[Reduced instruction set computer|RISC]] of the early 1980s offer roughly one order of magnitude in performance improvement over [[Complex instruction set computer|CISC]] processors of comparable cost. [[Intel]]'s [[x86]] CISC family always had the edge in market share and the [[economies of scale]] that this implied. By the mid-1990s, some CISC processors like the [[Motorola 68040]] and Intel's [[i486|80486]] and [[Pentium (original)|Pentium]] have performance parity with RISC in some areas, such as integer performance (at the cost of greater chip complexity) and hardware [[Floating-point arithmetic|floating-point]] calculations, relegating RISC to even more high-end markets.<ref name=macworld>{{cite magazine
| url = https://archive.org/stream/MacWorld_9112_December_1991#page/n141/mode/2up
| title = Macintosh Quadras - Power But No Pizzazz
| pages = 140–147
| date = December 1991
| volume = 8
| issue = 12
| magazine = MacWorld
| first = Bruce
| last = Webster
| author-link = Bruce Webster
}}</ref>
* Hardware support for floating-point operations: optional on the original IBM PC; remained on a separate chip for Intel systems until the [[i486#Models|80486DX]] processor. Even then, x86 floating-point performance lags other processors due to limitations in its architecture. Today even low-price PCs now have performance in the gigaFLOPS range.
* High-performance/high-capacity data storage: early workstations tend to use proprietary disk interfaces until the SCSI standard of the mid-1980s. Although SCSI interfaces soon became available for IBM PCs, they were comparatively expensive and tend to be limited by the speed of the PC's [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]] peripheral bus. SCSI is an advanced controller interface good for multitasking and daisy chaining. This makes it suited for use in servers, and its benefits to desktop PCs which mostly run single-user operating systems are less clear, but it is standard on the 1980s-1990s Macintosh. [[Serial ATA]] is more modern, with throughput comparable to SCSI but at a lower cost.
* High-speed [[computer network|networking]] (10&nbsp;Mbit/s or better): 10&nbsp;Mbit/s network interfaces were commonly available for PCs by the early 1990s, although by that time workstations were pursuing even higher networking speeds, moving to 100&nbsp;Mbit/s, 1&nbsp;Gbit/s, and 10&nbsp;Gbit/s.  However, economies of scale and the demand for high-speed networking in even non-technical areas have dramatically decreased the time it takes for newer networking technologies to reach commodity price points.
* Large displays (17- to 21-inch) with high resolutions and high refresh rates for graphics and CAD work, which were rare among PCs in the late 1980s and early 1990s but became common among PCs by the late 1990s.
* Large memory configurations: PCs (such as IBM clones) are originally limited to 640&nbsp; KB of RAM until the 1982 introduction of the [[Intel 80286|80286]] processor; early workstations have megabytes of memory. IBM clones require special programming techniques to address more than 640 KB until the 80386, as opposed to other 32-bit processors such as [[SPARC]] which provide straightforward access to nearly their entire 4&nbsp; GB memory address range.  64-bit workstations and servers supporting an address range far beyond 4&nbsp; GB have been available since the early 1990s, a technology just beginning to appear in the PC desktop and server market in the mid-2000s.
* [[Operating system]]: early workstations ran the [[Unix]] operating system (OS), a [[Unix-like]] variant, or an unrelated equivalent OS such as [[OpenVMS|VMS]]. The PC CPUs of the time have limitations in memory capacity and [[protected mode|memory access protection]], making them unsuitable to run OSes of this sophistication, but this, too, began to change in the late 1980s as PCs with the [[32-bit]] [[i386|80386]] with integrated paged [[Memory management unit|MMUs]] became widely affordable and enabling [[OS/2]], [[Windows NT 3.1]], and Unix-like systems based on [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] and [[Linux]] on commodity PC hardware.
* Tight integration between the OS and the hardware: Workstation vendors both design the hardware and maintain the Unix operating system variant that runs on it. This allows for much more rigorous testing than is possible with an operating system such as Windows. Windows requires that third-party hardware vendors write compliant hardware drivers that are stable and reliable. Also, minor variations in hardware quality such as timing or build quality can affect the reliability of the overall machine. Workstation vendors are able to ensure both the quality of the hardware, and the stability of the operating system drivers by validating these things in-house, and this leads to a generally much more reliable and stable machine.

===Market position===
[[File:Sun Ultra 20 Workstation (2005).jpeg|thumb|[[Sun Ultra series|Sun Ultra 20]] with [[AMD]] [[Opteron]] processor and [[Solaris (operating system)|Solaris 10]]]]
Since the late 1990s, the workstation and consumer markets have further merged. Many low-end workstation components are now the same as the consumer market, and the price differential narrowed. For example, most [[Macintosh Quadra]] computers were originally intended for scientific or design work, all with the [[Motorola 68040]] CPU, backward compatible with [[Motorola 68000 series|68000]] Macintoshes. The consumer [[Macintosh IIcx]] and [[Macintosh IIci]] models can be upgraded to the [[Macintosh Quadra 700|Quadra 700]]. "In an era when many professionals preferred Silicon Graphics workstations, the Quadra 700 was an intriguing option at a fraction of the cost" as resource-intensive software such as [[Infini-D]] brought "studio-quality 3D rendering and animations to the home desktop". The Quadra 700 can run [[A/UX]] 3.0, making it a [[Unix]] workstation.<ref>{{cite web|date=11 December 2020|first=Chris|last=Wilkinson|title=Working from home at 25MHz: You could do worse than a Quadra 700 (even in 2020)|url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2020/12/it-still-runs-on-your-imagination-passing-2020-time-with-a-macintosh-quadra-700/|work=Ars Technica}}</ref> Another example is the [[Nvidia]] [[GeForce 256]] consumer graphics card, which spawned the [[Quadro]] workstation card, which has the same GPU but different driver support and certifications for CAD applications and a much higher price.

Workstations have typically driven advancements in CPU technology. All computers benefit from multi-processor and multicore designs (essentially, multiple processors on a [[die (integrated circuit)|die]]). The multicore design was pioneered by IBM's [[POWER4]]; it and Intel Xeon have multiple CPUs, more on-die cache, and ECC memory.

Some workstations are designed or certified for use with only one specific application such as [[AutoCAD]], [[Avid Technology|Avid]] Xpress Studio HD, or [[3D Studio Max]]. The certification process increases workstation prices.