Editing Zuni people (section)

==History==
Archaeology suggests that the Zuni have been farmers in the general area for 3,000 to 4,000 years. It is now thought that the Ancestral Zuni people inhabited the [[Zuni River]] valley from the last millennium B.C., when they began using [[irrigation]] to farm [[maize]] on at least household-sized plots.<ref>''Zuni Origins: Toward a New Synthesis of Southwestern Archaeology'', The University of Arizona Press (2009), {{ISBN|978-0816528936}}, edited by David A. Gregory and David R. Wilcox, p. 119</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Damp, Jonathan E.|year=2008|title=The Economic Origins of Zuni|journal=Archaeology Southwest|volume=22|issue=2|page=8|url=http://www.archaeologysouthwest.org/pdf/arch-sw-v22-no2.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912114537/http://www.archaeologysouthwest.org/pdf/arch-sw-v22-no2.pdf|archive-date=12 September 2014|url-status=live}}; see also {{Cite book|author=Damp, Jonathan E.|year=2010|chapter=Zuni emergent agriculture: economic strategies and the origins of Zuni|editor=Gregory, David A. |editor2=Wilcox, David R.|title=Zuni Origins: Toward a new synthesis of Southwestern archaeology|publisher=University of Arizona Press|location=Tucson, Arizona|pages=118&ndash;132|isbn=978-0-8165-2893-6}}</ref>

[[File:Zuni Salt Lake.jpg|thumb|Zuni Salt Lake, New Mexico, where the Zuni have harvested salt for centuries]]

Zuni culture is associated with [[Mogollon culture|Mogollon]] and [[Ancestral Pueblo peoples]] cultures, who lived in the deserts of New Mexico, [[Arizona]], [[Utah]], and southern [[Colorado]] for over two millennia. White Mound was one such settlement of pit houses, farming, and storerooms, built around 700 [[A.D.]], followed by the village of Kiatuthlanna around 800 A.D., and Allantown around 1000 A.D. These Mogollon villages included [[kiva]]s. Likewise, Zuni ancestors were in contact with the [[Ancestral Puebloans]] at [[Chaco Canyon]] around 1100. The Zuni settlement called Village of the Great Kivas, was built around 1100, and included nine kivas. The Zuni region, however, was probably only sparsely populated by small agricultural settlements until the 12th century when the population and the size of the settlements began to increase. The large villages of Heshot Ula, Betatakin, and Kiet Siel were established by 1275. By the 13th century villages were built on top of mesas, including Atsinna on Inscription Rock. In the 14th century, the Zuni inhabited a dozen pueblos containing between 180 and 1,400 rooms, while the Anasazi abandoned larger settlements for smaller ones, or established new ones along the Rio Grande. The Zuni did move from the eastern portion of their territory to the western side, and built six new villages, Halona, Hawikuh, Kiakima, Matsaki, Kwakina, and Kechipaun.{{refn|Also ''Kechipauan'' or ''Kechipauen''.<ref name="clark">{{cite book |last1=Clark |first1=Patricia Roberts |title=Tribal Names of the Americas: Spelling Variants and Alternative Forms, Cross-Referenced |date=21 October 2009 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5169-2 |pages=10,104 |language=en}}</ref>}} Halona was located 97&nbsp;km north Zuni Salt Lake, and the Zuni traded in salt, corn and [[turquoise]]. Hawikuh was claimed by Niza to be one of the [[Seven Cities of Cibola]], a legendary 16th century wealthy empire.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kintigh |first=Keith |year=2008 |title=Zuni Settlement Patterns: A.D. 950–1680 |journal=Archaeology Southwest |volume=22 
|issue=2 |page=15&ndash;16 |url=http://www.archaeologysouthwest.org/pdf/arch-sw-v22-no2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912114537/http://www.archaeologysouthwest.org/pdf/arch-sw-v22-no2.pdf |archive-date=12 September 2014 |url-status=live}}; see also {{Cite book |last=Kintigh |first=Keith |year=2010 |chapter=Late prehistoric and late prehistoric settlement systems in the Zuni area |editor1-last=Gregory |editor1-first=David A. |editor2-last=Wilcox |editor2-first=David R. |title=Zuni Origins: Toward a new synthesis of Southwestern archaeology |publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]] |location=Tucson, Arizona |pages=361&ndash;376|isbn=978-0-8165-2893-6}}</ref><ref name=p109>Pritzker 109</ref><ref name="nb">{{cite book |last1=Bonvillain |first1=Nancy |title=The Zuni |date=2011 |publisher=Chelsea House |location=New York |isbn=9781604137996 |pages=18–23, 56–57}}</ref>

In 1539, [[Moors|Moorish]] slave [[Estevanico]] led an advance party of [[Fray Marcos de Niza]]'s Spanish expedition. Sponsored by [[Antonio de Mendoza]] who wanted Niza to "explain to the natives of the land that there is only one God in heaven, and the Emperor on earth to rule and govern it, whose subjects they all must become and whom they must serve." The Zuni reportedly killed Estevanico as a spy, or for being "greedy, voracious and bold".<ref name=p109/> This was Spain's first contact with any of the Pueblo peoples.<ref>David Roberts, ''The Pueblo Revolt'', 56 (Simon and Schuster, 2004). {{ASIN|B000MC1CHQ}}. Reprint, 2005, {{ISBN|0-7432-5517-8}}</ref> [[Francisco Vásquez de Coronado]] expedition followed in the wake of Niza's Seven Cities of Cibola claim. Sponsored once again by Mendoza, Coronado led 230 soldiers on horseback, 70 foot soldiers, several [[Franciscan priest]]s and Mexican natives. The Spanish met 600 Zuni warriors near [[Hawikuh Ruins|Hawikuh]] in July 1540, inflicting several casualties, and capturing the village. Coronado continued to the Rio Grande, but several priests and soldiers stayed an additional two years. The [[Chamuscado and Rodríguez Expedition]] followed in 1581, and [[Antonio de Espejo]] in 1583. [[Juan de Oñate]] visited Zuni territory in 1598 and 1604 looking for copper mines, but without success. [[Francisco Manuel de Silva Nieto]] established a mission at [[Hawikuh]] in 1629 with two Franciscan priests. They completed a church compound in 1632, and established a second mission in Halona. Shortly afterwards, the Zuni destroyed the missions, killing two priests, and then retreated to [[Dowa Yalanne]], where they remained for the next three years. The Spanish built another mission in Halona in 1643.<ref name=p109/><ref name=nb/>{{rp|56–59}}

Before the [[Pueblo Revolt]] of 1680, the Zuni lived in six villages. After the revolt, until 1692, they took refuge in a defensible position atop ''[[Dowa Yalanne]]'', a steep [[mesa]] 5&nbsp;km (3.1 miles) southeast of the present Pueblo of Zuni; ''Dowa'' means "corn", and ''yalanne'' means "mountain". After the establishment of peace and the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|return of the Spanish]], the Zuni relocated to their present location, returning to the mesa top only briefly in 1703.<ref>Flint, Richard and Shirley Cushing Flint [http://newmexicohistory.org/filedetails_docs.php?fileID=21237 "Dowa Yalanne, or Corn Mountain"]. {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120714042635/http://newmexicohistory.org/filedetails_docs.php?fileID=21237 |date=2012-07-14 }} New Mexico Office of the State Historian. 21 April 2012.</ref> By the end of the 17th century, only Halona was still inhabited of the original six villages. Yet, satellite villages were settled around Halona, and included Nutria, Ojo Caliente, and Pescado.<ref name=nb/>{{rp|67–69, 73–78}}

Of the three Zuni missions, only the church at Halona was rebuilt after the reconquest. According to [[Nancy Bonvillain]], "Indeed, by the late eighteenth century, Spanish authorities had given up hope of dominating the Zuni and other western Pueblo Indians, and in 1799 only seven Spanish people were recorded as living among the Zuni.". In 1821, the Franciscans ended their missionary efforts.<ref name=nb/>{{rp|71–74}}

In 1848, U.S. Army Lt. Col. Henderson P. Boyakin signed a treaty with Zuni and Navajo leaders stating the Zuni "shall be protected in the full management of all their rights of Private Property and Religion...[by] the authorities, civil and military, of New Mexico and the United States." Observing the Zuni in the 1850s, [[Balduin Möllhausen]] noted "In all directions, fields of wheat and maize, as well as gourds and melons, bore testimony to their industry."<ref name=nb/>{{rp|81, 83}}

The Zuni Reservation was created by the United States federal government in 1877, and enlarged by a second [[Executive order]] in 1883.<ref name=nb/>{{rp|86–88}}

[[Frank Hamilton Cushing]], an [[anthropologist]] associated with the [[Smithsonian Institution]], lived with the Zuni from 1879 to 1884. He was one of the first non-native participant-observers and ethnologists at Zuni. In 1979, it was reported that some members of the Pueblo consider he had wrongfully documented the Zuni way of life, exploiting them by photographing and revealing sacred traditions and ceremonies.<ref>Frank Hamilton Cushing, ''Zuni'' (University of Nebraska, 1979).</ref>

During the early 2000s, the Zuni opposed the development of a [[coal mining|coal mine]] near the [[Zuni Salt Lake]], a site sacred to the Zuni and under Zuni control.<ref>{{cite news |last=Neary |first=Ben |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-feb-18-me-26824-story.html |title=Mining Plan Pits Tribe Against Power Industry |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=18 February 2001 |access-date=26 May 2009}}</ref> The mine would have extracted water from the [[aquifer]] below the lake and would also have involved construction between the lake and the Zuni. The plan was abandoned in 2003 after several lawsuits.<ref>{{cite news |last=Neary |first=Ben |title=Utility Drops Plans for Coal Mine |url=http://www.sacredland.org/zuni_salt_lake_saved.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040630011953/http://www.sacredland.org/zuni_salt_lake_saved.html |archive-date=30 June 2004 |work=[[Santa Fe New Mexican]] |date=5 August 2003 |access-date=26 May 2009}}</ref><ref name=nb/>{{rp|117–119}}

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:We-Wa, a Zuni berdache, weaving - NARA - 523796 (cropped).jpg|[[We'wha|We'Wha]] (1849–1896), a celebrated Zuni [[lhamana]] weaver at work on a backstrap loom, photo: [[John K. Hillers]], {{Circa|1871}}–1907
File:Image taken from page 14 of 'Report of an expedition down the Zuni and Colorado Rivers by Captain L. Sitgreaves (11042155095) (cropped).jpg|Image of [[Zuni Pueblo]] created during the U.S. Army [[Corps of Topographical Engineers]]'s 1851 expedition to Arizona which was led by [[Lorenzo Sitgreaves|Captain Sitgreaves]]<ref name="Granger1960">{{cite book |first=Byrd H. |last=Granger|title=Arizona Place Names |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I7r_ZwEACAAJ |access-date=9 December 2011 |year=1960 |publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]] |page=21}}</ref>
File:Lutakawi.jpg|Lutakawi, Zuni Governor, photographed before 1925 by [[Edward S. Curtis]]
File:Zuni Pueblo2.jpg|Zuni [[pueblo]] middle court, in 1879
File:Littlecoloradomap.png|Zuni River, Zuni Pueblo, New Mexico. The Zuni people have inhabited the [[Zuni River]] valley since the last millennium BCE
File:Ancient Pueblo Town of Zuni, Western New Mexico (cropped).jpg|Zuni men and the ancient Pueblo Town of Zuni, {{circa|1868}}
File:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 082.jpg|Two Zuni girls, photographed by Edward S. Curtis, {{circa|1926}}
</gallery>