Editing Allobroges (section)

==History==
=== Pre-Roman period ===
==== Origin ====
The Allobroges probably settled relatively late in Southern Gaul, for they are not attested before the late 3rd century BC, in connection with [[Hannibal]]'s crossing of the Alps in 218 BC.{{sfn|Kruta|2000|pp=290, 308}}{{sfn|Lafond|2006}} According to some scholars, they may be identified with the [[Gaesatae]], a group of mercenary warriors first mentioned a few years earlier in the region and who fought against the [[Roman Republic]] in the [[Battle of Telamon]] (225 BC).{{sfn|Kruta|2000|pp=290, 308}}{{sfn|Bocquet|2009|pp=35–36}} The Allobroges may thus be the descendants of mobile groups of Gallic mercenaries who were active across central Europe in the first part of the 3rd century BC, and who eventually settled between the Rhône and the Alps in search for new opportunities during the later decades of the century.{{sfn|Kruta|2000|pp=290, 308}}

==== Hannibal's crossing of the Alps (218 BC) ====
[[File:Hannibal crossing the Alps into Italy.jpg|thumb|299x299px|Hannibal crossing the Alps into Italy.]]
In the mid-2nd century BC, the Greek historian [[Polybius]] first mentioned the Allobroges in his account of [[Hannibal's crossing of the Alps]] in 218 BC. The Allobroges of the plain helped the Carthaginian conqueror, whereas those of the mountains tried in vain to block his passage.{{Sfn|Rivet|1988|p=31}}

{{Quote|text=... [Hannibal] reached a place called the 'Island', a populous district producing abundance of corn and deriving its name from its situation; for the Rhone and Isère running along each side of it meet at its point ... On arriving there he found two brothers disputing the crown and posted over against each other with their armies, and on the elder one making overtures to him and begging him to assist in establishing him on the throne, he consented, it being almost a matter of certainty that under present circumstances this would be of great service to him.|source={{harvnb|Polybius|2010}}. ''Historíai'', [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/polybius-histories/2010/pb_LCL137.131.xml 3:49–50].|author=|title=}}
Hannibal then expelled the other chieftain and was given new weapons, corn, warm clothing and footwear by his local ally. The latter protected him in the rear with his own forces through the territory of the Allobroges, until he reached the foot of the Alpine pass.{{Sfn|Rivet|1988|p=31}}

{{Quote|text=... For as long as they had been in flat country, the various chiefs of the Allobroges had left them alone, being afraid both of the cavalry and of the barbarians who were escorting them. But when the latter had set off on their return home, and Hannibal's troops began to advance into the difficult region, the Allobrogian chieftains got together a considerable force and occupied advantageous positions on the road by which the Carthaginians would be obliged to ascend. Had they only kept their project secret, they would have utterly annihilated the Carthaginian army, but, as it was, it was discovered, and though they inflicted a good deal of damage on Hannibal, they did as much injury to themselves ...|source={{harvnb|Polybius|2010}}. ''Historíai'', [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/polybius-histories/2010/pb_LCL137.131.xml 3:49–50].|author=|title=}}

In [[Livy]]'s version, the Gallic chieftain who provided assistance to Hannibal is named Brancus ('the claw', <small>var.</small> ''Braneus'').{{sfn|Bocquet|2009|p=33}}<ref name="Livy" /> According to some scholars, since the 'Island' mentioned by ancient authors corresponds to the territory of the [[Segovellauni]], Brancus may actually be Segovellaunian.{{sfn|Bocquet|2009|pp=102–104}} In his account, however, Livy specifically states that the two chieftains were Allobroges.{{Sfn|Rivet|1988|p=31}}

From the 2nd century BC onward, a climate change known as the [[Roman Warm Period]] led to a reduction in migrations from Central and Northern Europe. As a result, the adoption rate of a sedentary lifestyle among the former roving tribes of the region, including the Allobroges, probably increased during the late 2nd and 1st century BC. Greek geographer [[Strabo]] later wrote in the early 1st century AD, "formerly the Allobroges kept up warfare with many myriads of men, whereas now they till the plains and the glens that are in the Alps."{{sfn|Bocquet|2009|p=13}}

=== Early Roman period ===
==== Annexion to the Roman Republic (121 BC) ====
Between 125 and 122 BC, the Romans crossed the Alps and fought the [[Salluvii]] and [[Vocontii]]. During the conflict, the Allobroges gave shelter to the Salluvian leaders, including their king [[Toutomotoulos]], and refused to hand them over, which, added to the fact that the Allobroges had raided the [[Aedui]], a recent ally of Rome, led the latter to declare war against them.{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=17–18}}{{Sfn|Rivet|1988|pp=40–41}}{{sfn|Rawlings|2017}}

They were defeated by the Romans forces of [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 122 BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] at the [[Battle of Vindalium]] in 121 BC, which occurred in modern Mourre-de-Sève ([[Sorgues]]), at the confluence of the Rhône and [[Sorgue]] rivers in [[Cavari]]an territory. The Allobrogian cavalry reportedly feared the Roman [[war elephants]], and [[Orosius]] writes that they lost 20,000 men while 3,000 of them were captured. In August of the same year, the Roman army, strengthened by the troops of [[Fabius Maximus|Quintus Fabius Maximus]], inflicted a decisive defeat on a massive combined force of Allobroges, [[Arveni]] and the remaining Salluvii at the [[Battle of the Isère River]]. The Allobrogian territory was subsequently annexed to Rome by Domitius Ahenobarbus and Fabius Maximus, the latter earning the [[cognomen]] ''Allobrogicus'' for this feat.{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=17–18}}{{Sfn|Rivet|1988|pp=40–41}}{{sfn|Rawlings|2017}}

Between 120 and 117, those new Roman lands were progressively pacified and incorporated into a [[Roman province]] known as [[Gallia Transalpina]] by Domitius Ahenobarbus.{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=17–18}} The Allobroges had to pay heavy taxes to Rome, although they were allowed to keep their administrative autonomy and territory.{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=21–24}} They likely suffered from the invasions of the [[Cimbri]] and [[Teutons|Teutoni]] during the [[Cimbrian War]] in 107–102 BC. The Allobrogian territory – Vienna in particular as it was located in the middle of the Rhône Valley – represented the northern frontier that separated Rome from the '[[barbarian]]' world, and was thus exposed to the attacks of potentially hostile Gallic and Germanic tribes.{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=19–21}}

==== Legal protests (69–63 BC) ====
In 69 BC, the Allobroges sent a delegation to Rome led by their chief [[Indutiomarus (Allobroges)|Indutiomarus]] in order to protest against the heavy taxes imposed by [[Marcus Fonteius]], the Roman governor of [[Gallia Transalpina]].{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=23–25}} Already in 104 BC, the tribune [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 96 BC)|Domitius Ahenobarbus]], son of the Roman conqueror of the Allobroges, had accused Silanus of injustice (''iniurias'') against the Allobrogian chief Aegritomarus.{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|p=21}} Fonteius chose [[Cicero]] as his lawyer, and although the verdict of the trial remains unknown, the Roman governor was probably acquitted.{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=23–25}} The Allobroges appear to have been the dominant tribe of Gallia Transalpina at that time, for Indutiomarus is presented as the "leader of the Allobroges and all the Gauls" by Cicero.{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=23–25}} According to scholar [[A. L. F. Rivet]], they were probably feared as "the one tribe in Gaul that really could mount war against the Roman people".{{Sfn|Rivet|1988|p=305}}

Later on, an Allobrogian insurrection was suppressed by [[Gaius Calpurnius Piso (consul 67 BC)|Calpurnius Piso]], who administered [[Gallia Narbonensis]] as proconsul until 65 BC. For this, he was unsuccessfully prosecuted by [[Caesar]], who had interest in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Badian|first=Ernst|author-link=Ernst Badian|year=2015|title=Calpurnius Piso (1), Gaius, Roman consul, 67 BCE|journal=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1303|isbn=978-0-19-938113-5}}</ref> In 63 BC, while Cicero was serving as consul, they sent another delegation to Rome, hoping to seek relief from the oppression and rapacity of the governor [[Lucius Licinius Murena (consul 62 BC)|Lucius Murena]] and Roman businessmen active in the region. Their demands rejected by the Roman Senate, they were approached by supporters of [[Catiline]], a senator who attempted to overthrow the [[Roman Republic]] and, in particular, the power of the [[Aristocracy (government)|aristocratic]] [[Roman Senate|Senate]].{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=25–26}}{{sfn|March|1989|p=226}} Seeing an opportunity to enlist their help to the [[Second Catilinarian conspiracy|Catiline conspiracy]], [[Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura|Lentulus]] sent the businessman [[Umbrenus]] persuade the Gallic envoys to invade Italy in support of Catiline. Although initially favourable to this overture, the Allobroges thought that their fate would be better if they take the Senate's side. They contacted their patron [[Quintus Fabius Sanga|Q. Fabius Sanga]], and Cicero convinced them to provide him with more evidence by feigning to join the conspirators. The supporters of Catiline then revealed all their plan to the Gauls, who demanded sealed letters from some leading conspirators, which the Allobroges eventually leaked to Cicero.{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=25–26}}{{sfn|March|1989|p=227}}

==== Revolt against Rome (62–61 BC) ====
Faced with a series of legal defeats, the Allobroges decided to take the arms against Rome in 62 BC. Led by their chief [[Catugnatus]], they managed to resist against the Roman armies during nearly two years. The new governor of the province, [[Gaius Pomptinus]], sent his [[Legatus|legate]] Manlius Lentinus to crush the revolt.{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=26–27}}{{Sfn|Rivet|1988|pp=61–62|p=}}[[File:Denier au cheval galopant et au “caducée” frappé par les Allobroges (Région du Dauphiné).jpg|thumb|265x265px|Allobrogian [[denarius]] from the 1st century BC.]]In 61 BC, a battle was fought between the Gallic and Roman troops near the [[Segovellauni]]an settlement of Ventia, which was eventually taken by Lentinus. At the same time, the two other legates seized and partly destroyed the Allobrogian chief town, Solonion. The coming of Catugnatus' forces momentary saved the stronghold, but further Roman troops led by Pomptinus surrounded and defeated the Gallic armies, putting an end to the rebellion. Their capital destroyed, the Allobrogian chieftains decided to move their place of residence to [[Vienne, Isere|Vienna]].{{sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=26–27}}{{Sfn|Rivet|1988|pp=61–62|p=}}

{{Quote|text=Lucius Marius and Servius Galba crossed the Rhone and after ravaging the possessions of the Allobroges finally reached the city of Solonium and occupied a strong position commanding it. They conquered their opponents in battle and also set fire to portions of the town, which was partly constructed of wood; they did not capture it, however, being prevented by the arrival of Catugnatus. Pomptinus, on learning of this, proceeded against the place with his entire army, besieged it, and got possession of the defenders, with the exception of Catugnatus. After that he more easily subjugated the remaining districts.|source={{harvnb|Cassius Dio|1914}}, ''Rhōmaïkḕ Historía'', [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/dio_cassius-roman_history/1914/pb_LCL053.175.xml? 37:48].|author=|title=}}

==== Political turmoils (58–44 BC) ====
The period saw the invasion of the remaining of Gaul by [[Julius Caesar]], followed by a [[Caesar's Civil War|civil war]] and [[Caesar's assassination]] in March 44. Although the Helvetii thought that they could persuade the Allobroges to let them go through their territory in 58 BC because of their antipathy to Rome, the Gallic tribe, presumably led at that time by Adbucillus, remained loyal to Caesar during all the [[Gallic Wars]] (58–50 BC). The Roman general used Vienna in particular as a strategic outpost during the conflict against the Gauls.{{Sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=29–31}}{{Sfn|Rivet|1988|p=|pp=63–64}}

After the failed migration of the [[Helvetii]], who were repelled by the Romans towards their homeland, the Allobroges were asked by Caesar to provide them with wheat. In the autumn of 57, the legate [[Servius Sulpicius Galba (praetor 54 BC)|Galba]] spent winter in the Allobrogian territory after an unsuccessful campaign in Vallis Poenina (modern [[Valais]]). Following the Roman defeat at the [[Battle of Gergovia]] (52 BC), the Allobroges began to strengthen the border along the Rhône river, possibly fearing attacks coming from the other bank.{{Sfn|Pelletier|1982|pp=29–31}} [[Vercingetorix]] tried to bribe their leaders to fight on the side of the Gallic coalition against Caesar, but the Allobroges rejected the offer.{{Sfn|Rivet|1988|p=305}}

Two sons of Adbucillus, [[Aegus and Roscillus]], provided assistance to Caesar in all of his Gallic campaigns. He assigned to them the highest magistracies among their own people, and granted them both money and conquered territory in Gaul. Regrettably, Caesar records that these privileges caused the two brothers to become "carried away by a foolish native pride" and to "treat their men with contempt, cheating the cavalry of its pay and diverting all of the booty to themselves". Their own armies came to Caesar to complain, and the two brothers eventually defected to [[Pompey]] at [[Dyrrachium]] just before the [[Battle of Pharsalus|Battle of Pharsalia]] (48 BC).<ref>{{harvnb|Caesar|2016}}. ''Bellum Civile'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/caesar-civil_wars/2016/pb_LCL039.277.xml 3:59–61].</ref>

=== Roman Empire ===
[[Strabo]] reported in the early 1st century AD that all of the Allobroges lived in villages, "except that the most notable of them, inhabitants of Vienna (formerly a village, but called, nevertheless, the 'metropolis' of the tribe), have built it up into a city."<ref name="Strabo2">{{harvnb|Strabo|1923}}. ''Geōgraphiká'', [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/strabo-geography/1917/pb_LCL050.199.xml 4.1:11].</ref>

At the time of the late Roman Empire, the Allobrogian territory was divided and administered from the three main cities: Vienna, Geneva and Cularo (later renamed Gratianopolis).{{Sfn|Rivet|1988|p=312}}