Editing Ancient Roman architecture (section)

== Building types ==

=== Amphitheatre ===
{{Main|Roman amphitheatre}}
{{further|List of Roman amphitheatres}}
[[File:Arenes_de_Nimes_(19).jpg|thumb|Arena of Nîmes ({{Circa|100 CE}})]]
The [[amphitheatre]] was, with the [[triumphal arch]] and [[basilica]], the only major new type of building developed by the Romans.<ref>Henig, p. 26. Blagg also mentions baths, granaries, insulae and large villas.</ref> Some of the most impressive secular buildings are the amphitheatres, over 200 being known and many of which are well preserved, such as that at [[Arles Amphitheatre|Arles]], as well as its progenitor, the [[Colosseum]] in Rome. They were used for [[gladiator]]ial contests, public displays, public meetings and [[bullfight]]s, the tradition of which still survives in Spain and Portugal. Their typical shape, functions and name distinguish them from [[Roman theatre (structure)|Roman theatres]], which are more or less semicircular in shape; from the [[Roman circus|circuses]] (akin to [[hippodrome]]s) whose much longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or chariot racing events; and from the smaller stadia, which were primarily designed for [[sport|athletics]] and footraces.{{sfn|Bomgardner|2000|p=37}}
[[File:Anfiteatro,_El_Jem,_Túnez,_2016-09-04,_DD_09.jpg|thumb|Amphitheatre of El Jem ({{Circa|238 CE}})]]
The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle of the first century BC, but most were built under Imperial rule, from the [[Augustus|Augustan]] period (27 BC–14 AD) onwards.{{sfn|Bomgardner|2000|p=59}} Imperial amphitheatres were built throughout the Roman Empire; the largest could accommodate 40,000–60,000 spectators, and the most elaborate featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elaborately decorated with [[marble]], [[stucco]] and statuary.{{sfn|Bomgardner|2000|p= 62}} After the end of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and of [[Venatio|animal killings]] in the 6th, most amphitheatres fell into disrepair, and their materials were mined or recycled. Some were razed, and others converted into fortifications. A few continued as convenient open meeting places; in some of these, churches were sited.{{sfn|Bomgardner|2000|pp=201–223}}

Architecturally, they are typically an example of the Roman use of the classical orders to decorate large concrete walls pierced at intervals, where the columns have nothing to support. Aesthetically, however, the formula is successful.

[[File:Trier - Aula Palatina.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Aula Palatina]] of [[Trier]], Germany (then part of the [[Roman province]] of [[Gallia Belgica]]), built during the reign of [[Constantine I]] (r. 306–337 CE)]]

=== Basilica ===

The Roman [[basilica]] was a large public building where business or legal matters could be transacted. They were normally where the magistrates held court, and used for other official ceremonies, having many of the functions of the modern [[town hall]]. The first basilicas had no religious function. As early as the time of [[Augustus]], a public basilica for transacting business had been part of any settlement that considered itself a city, used in the same way as the late medieval covered market houses of northern Europe, where the meeting room, for lack of urban space, was set above the arcades. Although their form was variable, basilicas often contained interior [[colonnade]]s that divided the space, giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with an [[apse]] at one end (or less often at each end), where the magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais. The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could penetrate through the [[clerestory]] windows.

The oldest known basilica, the [[Basilica Porcia]], was built in Rome in 184&nbsp;BC by [[Cato the Elder]] during the time he was [[Roman censor|censor]]. Other early examples include the basilica at Pompeii (late 2nd century&nbsp;BC). After Christianity became the official religion, the basilica shape was found appropriate for the first large public churches, with the attraction of avoiding reminiscences of the Greco-Roman temple form.

=== Circus ===
The [[Roman circus]] was a large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient [[Roman Empire]]. The circuses were similar to the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[hippodrome]]s, although circuses served varying purposes and differed in design and construction. Along with [[Roman theatre (structure)|theatres]] and [[amphitheatre]]s, circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the time. Circuses were venues for [[chariot racing]], [[horse race]]s, and performances that commemorated important events of the Empire were performed there. For events that involved re-enactments of [[naval battle]]s, the circus was flooded with water.

The performance space of the Roman circus was normally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two linear sections of [[race track]], separated by a median strip running along the length of about two thirds the track, joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the other end with an undivided section of track closed (in most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the ''[[carceres]]'', thereby creating a circuit for the races.

=== Forum ===
{{main|Forum (Roman)}}
{{further|Roman Forum|List of monuments of the Roman Forum}}
[[File:Foro romano tempio Saturno 09feb08 01.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Roman Forum]]]]

During the years of the Republic, Augustus claimed he "found the city in brick and left it in marble".<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 43943460|title = A Page from Latin Notes Supplement XV, Entitled SOME STORIES ABOUT THE ROMAN FORUM|journal = Latin Notes|volume = 3|issue = 6|year = 1926}}</ref> While chances are high that this was an exaggeration, there is something to be said for the influx of marble use in Roman Forum from 63 BC onwards. During Augustus' reign, the Forum was described to have been "a larger, freer space than was the Forum of Imperial times."<ref name="Dennison">{{Cite journal|last=Dennison|first=Walter|date=June 1908|title=The Roman Forum as Cicero Saw It|jstor=3287491|journal=The Classical Journal|volume=3|issue=8|pages=318–326}}</ref> The Forum began to take on even more changes upon the arrival of [[Julius Caesar]], who drew out extensive plans for the market hub. While Caesar's death came prematurely, his ideas, as well as Augustus' in regards to the Forum proved to be the most influential for years to come. According to Walter Dennison's ''The Roman Forum As Cicero Saw It'', the author writes that "the diverting of public business to the larger and splendid [[Imperial fora]] erected in the vicinity resulted in leaving the general design of the Forum Romanum".<ref name="Dennison"/>

Every city had at least one [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] of varying size. In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including political discussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. The best known example is the [[Roman Forum]], the earliest of several in Rome. In new Roman towns the forum was usually located at, or just off, the intersection of the main north–south and east–west streets (the [[cardo]] and [[decumanus]]). All forums would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and would also contain other temples, as well as the [[basilica]]; a public weights and measures table, so customers at the market could ensure they were not being sold short measures; and would often have the baths nearby.

{{wide image|Foro Traiano panorama.jpg|710px|align-cap=center|A panoramic view of the [[Forum Trajanum]], with [[Trajan's Column]] on the far left.}}

=== Horreum ===
[[File:Ostia, horrea epagathiana 01.JPG|thumb|left|The Horrea Epagathiana et Epaphroditiana, a ''horreum'' in [[Ostia (Rome)]], Italy, built c. 145–150 AD]]
A [[horreum]] was a type of public warehouse used during the ancient Roman period. Although the [[Latin]] term is often used to refer to [[granaries]], Roman horrea were used to store many other types of consumables; the giant [[Horrea Galbae]] in Rome were used not only to store grain but also [[olive oil]], wine, foodstuffs, clothing and even [[marble]].{{sfn|Richardson|1992|p=193}} By the end of the Imperial period, the city of Rome had nearly 300 horrea to supply its demands.{{sfn|Lampe|2006|p=61}} The biggest were enormous, even by modern standards; the Horrea Galbae contained 140 rooms on the ground floor alone, covering an area of some {{convert|225,000|ft2|m2|abbr=off}}.{{sfn|Potter|Mattingly|1999|p=180}}

The first horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the 2nd century BC,{{sfn|Patrich|1996|p=149}} with the first known public horreum being constructed by the ill-fated [[tribune]] [[Gaius Gracchus]] in 123 BC.{{sfn|Métreaux|1998|pp=14–15}} The word came to be applied to any place designated for the preservation of goods; thus, it was often used to refer to cellars (''horrea subterranea''), but it could also be applied to a place where artworks were stored,<ref>[[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]], Epist. VIII.18</ref> or even to a library.<ref>[[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], Epist. 45</ref> Some public horrea functioned somewhat like banks, where valuables could be stored, but the most important class of horrea were those where foodstuffs such as grain and olive oil were stored and distributed by the state.{{sfn|Schmitz|1875|p=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Horreum.html 618]}}

The word itself is thought to have linguist roots tied to the word ''hordeum'', which in Latin means barley.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaufman|first=David|date=2 December 1929|title=Horrea Romana: Roman Storehouses|journal=The Classical Weekly|volume=23|issue=7|jstor=4389377 |pages=49–54|doi=10.2307/4389377}}</ref> In the [[Johns Hopkins University Press]], [[The Classical Weekly]] states that "[[Pliny the Elder]] does indeed make a distinction between the two words. He describes the horreum as a structure made of brick, the walls of which were not less than three feet thick; it had no windows or openings for ventilation".<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Kaufman|first=David|date=2 December 1929|title=Horrea Romana: Roman Storehouses|jstor=4389377|journal= The Classical Weekly|volume=23|issue=7|pages=49–54|doi=10.2307/4389377}}</ref> Furthermore, the storehouses would also host oil and wine and also use large jars that could serve as cache's for large amounts of products. These storehouses were also used to keep large sums of money and were used much like personal storage units today are. "These horrea were divided and subdivided, so that one could hire only so much space as one wanted, a whole room (cella), a closet (armarium), or only a chest or strong box (arca, arcula, locus, loculus)."<ref name=":0" />

=== Insula ===
{{Main|Insula (building)}}
[[File:OstianInsula.JPG|thumb|Insula in [[Ostia Antica]]]]

Multi-story apartment blocks called ''[[Insula (building)|insulae]]'' catered to a range of residential needs. The cheapest rooms were at the top owing to the inability to escape in the event of a fire and the lack of piped water. Windows were mostly small, facing the street, with iron security bars. ''Insulae'' were often dangerous, unhealthy, and prone to fires because of overcrowding and haphazard cooking arrangements.{{Citation needed|date=July 2014}} There are examples in the Roman port town of [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]], that date to the reign of [[Trajan]], but they seem to have been found mainly in Rome and a few other places. Elsewhere writers report them as something remarkable, but [[Livy]] and [[Vitruvius]] refer to them in Rome.<ref>EERA, 134</ref> External walls were in ''[[opus reticulatum]]'' and interiors in ''[[opus incertum]]'', which would then be plastered and sometimes painted.

To lighten up the small dark rooms, some tenants able to afford a degree of painted colourful murals on the walls. Examples have been found of jungle scenes with wild animals and exotic plants. Imitation windows (''[[trompe-l'œil]]'') were sometimes painted to make the rooms seem less confined.

Ancient Rome had elaborate and luxurious houses owned by the elite. The average house, or in cities apartment, of a commoner or [[Plebeians|plebeius]] did not contain many luxuries. The ''[[domus]]'', or single-family residence, was only for the well-off in Rome, with most having a layout of the closed unit, consisting of one or two rooms. Between 312 and 315 AD Rome had 1781 ''domus'' and 44,850 of ''insulae''.{{sfn|Hermansen|1970}}

''Insulae'' have been the subject of debate for historians of Roman culture, defining the various meanings of the word.{{sfn|Storey|2002}} ''Insula'' was a word used to describe apartment buildings, or the apartments themselves,{{sfn|Storey|2004}} meaning apartment, or inhabitable room, demonstrating just how small apartments for plebeians were. Urban divisions were originally street blocks, and later began to divide into smaller divisions, the word ''insula'' referring to both [[Insula (Roman city)|blocks]] and smaller divisions. The ''insula'' contained ''cenacula'', ''[[tabernae]]'', storage rooms under the stairs, and lower floor shops. Another type of housing unit for plebs was a ''cenaculum'', an apartment, divided into three individual rooms: ''cubiculum'', ''exedra'', and ''medianum''. Common Roman apartments were mainly masses of smaller and larger structures, many with narrow balconies that present mysteries as to their use, having no doors to access them, and they lacked the excessive decoration and display of wealth that aristocrats' houses contained. Luxury in houses was not common, as the life of the average person did not consist of being in their houses, as they instead would go to public baths, and engage in other communal activities.

=== Lighthouses ===
{{Main|Roman lighthouse}}
[[File:Torre_de_Hércules_-_DivesGallaecia2012-57.jpg|thumb|The [[Tower of Hercules]], a Roman [[lighthouse]] in Spain]]
Many [[lighthouses]] were built around the Mediterranean and the coasts of the empire, including the [[Tower of Hercules]] at [[A Coruña]] in northern Spain, a structure which survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at [[Dover]], England also exists as a ruin about half the height of the original. The light would have been provided by a fire at the top of the structure.

=== Thermae ===
{{Main|Thermae}}
{{further|List of Roman public baths}}
[[File:Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa,_England_-_July_2006.jpg|thumb|The [[Roman Baths (Bath)|Roman Baths]] that lend the city of [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]], England its name]]
All Roman cities had at least one ''[[thermae]]'', a popular facility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exercise might include wrestling and weightlifting, as well as swimming. Bathing was an important part of the Roman day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low cost subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed any required tasks such as fetching refreshment, guarding valuables, providing towels, and at the end of the session, applying olive oil to their masters' bodies, which was then scraped off with a [[strigil]], a scraper made of wood or bone.

Roman bath-houses were also provided for private [[Roman villa|villas]], [[domus|town houses]] and [[castra|forts]]. They were normally supplied with water from an adjacent river or stream, or by [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]]. The design of ''thermae'' is discussed by [[Vitruvius]] in ''[[De architectura]]''.

=== Temples ===
{{Main|Roman temple}}
{{further|List of Ancient Roman temples}}
[[File:Baalbek,_Temple_of_Bacchus_(6842814197).jpg|thumb|"Roman Baroque" [[Temple of Bacchus]] at [[Baalbek]], [[Lebanon]]]]
Roman temples were among the most important and richest buildings in Roman culture, though only a few survive in any sort of complete state. Their construction and maintenance was a major part of [[ancient Roman religion]], and all towns of any importance had at least one main temple, as well as smaller shrines. The main room ''([[cella]])'' housed the [[cult image]] of the [[List of Roman deities|deity]] to whom the temple was [[Votum|dedicated]], and often a small altar for incense or [[libation]]s. Behind the ''cella'' was a room or rooms used by temple attendants for storage of equipment and offerings.

Remains of many Roman temples survive, above all in Rome itself, but the relatively few near-complete examples were nearly all converted to Christian churches, usually a considerable time after the initial [[Constantine the Great and Christianity|triumph of Christianity under Constantine]]. The [[Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism|decline of Roman religion]] was relatively slow, and the temples themselves were not appropriated by the government until a decree of the Emperor [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] in 415. Some of the oldest surviving temples include the [[Temple of Hercules Victor]] (mid 2nd century BC) and [[Temple of Portunus]] (120–80 BC), both standing within the [[Forum Boarium]]. Original marble columns of the [[Temple of Janus (Forum Holitorium)|Temple of Janus]] in Rome's [[Forum Holitorium]], dedicated by [[Gaius Duilius]] after his naval victory at the [[Battle of Mylae]] in 260 BC,<ref>[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annales]]''. II.49.</ref> still stand as a component of the exterior wall of the [[Italian Renaissance|Renaissance era]] church of [[San Nicola in Carcere]].
[[File:Temple_of_Hercules_(Rome).jpg|thumb|The [[Temple of Hercules Victor]], Rome, built in the mid-2nd century BC, most likely by [[Lucius Mummius Achaicus]], who won the [[Achaean War]].]]
The form of the Roman temple was mainly derived from the [[Etruscan architecture|Etruscan]] model, but using Greek styles. Roman temples emphasised the front of the building, which followed [[Greek temple]] models and typically consisted of wide steps leading to a [[portico]] with columns, a [[pronaos]], and usually a triangular [[pediment]] above,<ref>Lawrence, 294</ref> which was filled with statuary in the most grand examples; this was as often in [[terracotta]] as stone, and no examples have survived except as fragments. However, unlike the Greek models, which generally gave equal treatment to all sides of the temple, which could be viewed and approached from all directions, the sides and rear of Roman temples might be largely undecorated (as in the [[Pantheon, Rome]] and temple of [[Roman temple of Vic|Vic]]), inaccessible by steps (as in the ''[[Maison carrée]]'' and Vic), and even back on to other buildings. As in the ''Maison carrée'', columns at the side might be [[engaged column]]s, emerging from ("engaged with" in architectural terminology) the wall.<ref>Wheeler, p. 89</ref> The platform on which the temple sat was typically raised higher in Roman examples than Greek, with up ten or twelve or more steps rather than the three typical in Greek temples; the [[Temple of Claudius]] was raised twenty steps. These steps were normally only at the front, and typically not the whole width of that.<ref>Lawrence, 294</ref>

The Greek [[classical order]]s in all their details were closely followed in the façades of temples, as in other prestigious buildings. However, the idealized proportions between the different elements set out by the only significant Roman writer on architecture to survive, [[Vitruvius]], and subsequent [[Italian Renaissance]] writers, do not reflect actual Roman practice, which could be very variable, though always aiming at balance and harmony. Following a [[Hellenistic]] trend, the [[Corinthian order]] and its variant the [[Composite order]] were most common in surviving Roman temples, but for small temples like [[Roman temple of Alcántara|that at Alcántara]], a simple [[Tuscan order]] could be used.<ref>Summerson, pp. 8–13</ref>

There was considerable local variation in style, as Roman architects often tried to incorporate elements the population expected in its [[sacred architecture]]. This was especially the case in [[Egypt]] and the [[Near East]], where different traditions of large stone temples were already millennia old. The [[Romano-Celtic temple]] was a simple style for small temples found in the [[Western Empire]], and by far the most common type in [[Roman Britain]]. It often lacked any of the distinctive classical features, and may have had considerable continuity with pre-Roman temples of the [[Ancient Celtic religion|Celtic religion]].

=== Theatres ===
{{main|Roman theatre (structure)}}
[[File:Ancient_Roman_theatre_in_Mérida_2023.jpg|thumb|[[Roman Theatre (Mérida)|Roman Theatre of Mérida]], Spain]]
[[Roman theatre (structure)|Roman theatres]] were built in all areas of the [[Roman Empire|Empire]], from Spain to the Middle East. Because of the Romans' ability to influence local architecture, numerous theatres were built around the world with uniquely Roman attributes.{{sfn|Wilson Jones|2000}}

These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain inherent architectural structures, with minor differences depending on the region in which they were constructed. The ''[[scaenae frons]]'' was a high back wall of the stage floor, supported by columns. The ''[[Proscenium|proscaenium]]'' was a wall that supported the front edge of the stage with ornately decorated niches to the sides. The Hellenistic influence is seen through the use of the ''proscaenium''. The Roman theatre also had a ''[[podium]]'', which sometimes supported the columns of the ''scaenae frons''. The ''scaenae'' was originally not part of the building itself, constructed only to provide sufficient background for the actors. Eventually, it became a part of the edifice itself, made out of concrete. The theatre itself was divided into the stage (orchestra) and the seating section ([[auditorium]]). ''[[Vomitorium|Vomitoria]]'' or entrances and exits were made available to the audience.{{sfn|Ros|1996}}

=== Villa ===
{{main|Roman villa}}
{{See also||Villa rustica|List of Roman villas in England|List of Roman villas in Belgium}}
[[File:Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Villa of the Mysteries]] just outside [[Pompeii]], seen from above]]
A [[Roman villa]] was a country house built for the upper class, while a ''[[domus]]'' was a wealthy family's house in a town. The Empire contained many kinds of villas, not all of them lavishly appointed with [[mosaic]] floors and [[fresco]]es. In the provinces, any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a "villa" by modern scholars.{{sfn|Ward-Perkins|2000|p= 333}} Some, like [[Hadrian's Villa]] at [[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]], were pleasure palaces such as those that were situated in the cool hills within easy reach of Rome or, like the [[Villa of the Papyri]] at [[Herculaneum]], on picturesque sites overlooking the [[Bay of Naples]]. Some villas were more like the [[country house]]s of England, the visible seat of power of a local magnate, such as the famous palace rediscovered at [[Fishbourne Roman Palace|Fishbourne]] in Sussex.

Suburban villas on the edge of cities were also known, such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that encroached on the [[Campus Martius]], at that time on the edge of Rome, and which can be also seen outside the city walls of [[Pompeii]], including the [[Villa of the Mysteries]], known for its frescos. These early suburban villas, such as the one at Rome's Auditorium site<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070704130906/http://www2.comune.roma.it/auditorium/auditorium.html La Villa Romana dell'Auditorium]</ref> or at Grottarossa in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the ''villa suburbana'' in Central Italy. It is possible that these early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power (maybe even palaces) of regional strongmen or heads of important families (''gentes'').

A third type of villa provided the organizational center of the large farming estates called ''[[latifundia]]''; such villas might be lacking in luxuries. By the 4th century, ''villa'' could simply mean an agricultural estate or holding: [[Jerome]] translated the [[Gospel of Mark]] (xiv, 32) ''chorion'', describing the olive grove of [[Gethsemane]], with ''villa'', without an inference that there were any dwellings there (''Catholic Encyclopedia'' "Gethsemane").

With the colossal [[Diocletian's Palace]], built in the countryside but later turned into a fortified city, a form of residential castle emerges, that anticipates the Middle Ages.

=== Watermills ===
{{further|List of ancient watermills}}
The initial invention of the [[watermill]] appears to have occurred in the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenized eastern Mediterranean]] in the wake of the [[conquests of Alexander the Great]] and the rise of [[History of science in Classical Antiquity#Hellenistic period|Hellenistic science and technology]].{{sfn|Wikander|2000a|pp=396f.}}{{sfn|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|p=11}}{{sfn|Wilson|2002|pp=7f.}} In the subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diversified and different types of watermills were introduced. These include all three variants of the vertical [[water wheel]] as well as the horizontal water wheel.{{sfn|Wikander|2000a|pp=373–378}}{{sfn|Donners|Waelkens|Deckers|2002|pp=12–15}} Apart from its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also applied to pounding grain,{{sfn|Wikander|1985|p=158}}{{sfn|Wikander|2000b|p=403}}{{sfn|Wilson|2002|p=16}} crushing ore,{{sfn|Wikander|2000b|p=407}} sawing stones{{sfn|Ritti|Grewe|Kessener|2007}} and possibly fulling and bellows for iron furnaces.{{sfn|Wikander|2000b|pp=406f.}}